Chapter 1 - The Duties of Princes

The book is described as having its origin in a lecture by a professor to his disciples.

pūrvadevaiḥ [pūrvadeva]:—Bṛhaspati’s disciples are the devas.

nītisāra—Śukra delivers the i.e., the essence or compendium, not the whole treatise. The other reading is nītiśāstra which makes Śukra,the author of the whole thing. But that is not to the point.

The end of Nīti Śāstra, as conceived by its first propounder, is here mentioned as being lokahita or usefulness to human beings. He believed that the precepts of Nīti would conduce to social well-being.

Here is an indication that Śukra was only one of the many Ācāryas who undertook the synoptical editions of the vast work of Brahmā.

tarkavistṛta—Extensive because of full logical discussion.

alpāyuḥ [alpāyus]:—The abridgment was called for by the fact that art is long and life is short.

bhūbhṛdādyarthaṃ—Princes are specially mentioned here as those to whom Nīti Śāstra

The scope and province of Nīti Śāstra are here distinguished from those of ordinary Śāstras.

kriyaikadeśvabodhīni—they have for their subject matter, i.e., treat of (bodhi) one aspect (ekadeśa) of human affairs. This refers to the principle of the division of labour among scientists and scholars and the necessary specialisation and differentiation of the sciences. Division of labour has both its advantages and disadvantages; and so it is here mentioned that the utility of ordinary specialised sciences is limited, their horizon being narrow.

sarvopajīvakaṃ [sarvopajīvaka]—Nīti Śāstra is thus defined as a synthetic, comprehensive and generalised science (or rather art) of society, equivalent to Sociology in its wide and hence should be considered equivalent to neither Ethics nor a treatise on Polity, but to a system of morals, (social, economic and political). The scope of this science or art must be wide enough in order that it may offer practical advice as to social well-being. It is, in fact, a recognised principle in modern times that neither Public finance, nor Economics, nor Political Science, by itself, is competent to be a guide on the art of living.

Nīti Śāstra is specially useful to princes for they hold in their hands the destiny of the peoples, and hence the learning that is calculated to promote human happiness has to be carefully mastered by them.

Three uses of Nīti Śāstra are here mentioned and these indicate three aspects of social life, and hence three branches of the science. In the first place, this science or art can dictate policies about enemies, friends and neutrals, and advise international measures. In the second place, it can suggest the arts of winning over the hearts of the subjects and perform the work of psychology and ethics by studying human interests and motives as well as the ways of dealing with men. In the third place, it offers lessons on diplomacy and political activities in general by which one can be an able pilot of the ship of state.

Uselessness and comparative insignificance of other sciences are here described. In praising the utility of Nīti Śāstra, the truths of which he is going to propound the author disparages the four sciences mentioned as being of no practical service to mankind. For, a language can be learnt even by dispensing with its grammar and rules of Syntax; Truth about a subject can be arrived at even without troubling oneself with syllogistic trains of reasoning. So also to understand the rites and ceremonies attending a religious worship one need not study the rules laid down by Jaimini, nor has one to master the subtle philosophy about the Supreme Being and the transcendental truths about the human soul in order to understand and feel the nothingness of the world and Its affairs.

In II.14-17 the author has said that Grammar, Logic, Pūrva Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta may well be dispensed with by men as they are of no practical utility and that the world would not be any the poorer if these Śāstras did not exist. A further ground of their disparagement is here mentioned (18-19). It is the fact that even if they have some sort of usefulness their usefulness is very limited, these sciences being adapted to special purposes, and not to the universal interests of man as man.

Thus there are men who need have no concern with languages or the correct methods of discussion, whose affairs in this world do not demand of them a knowledge of the Karma Kāṇḍa of the Vedas or of the highest truths of the universe. Such men would go on very well without the Sciences that deal with these topics, and are certainly not any the richer and peppier for their existence.

[It is implied here that Nīti Śāstra is useful to all men and in all his concerns, and cannot in any way be neglected by man as a social animal; for man as man cannot do without those precepts which this Śāstra offers, whereas he can do many things and live in the world in many ways besides being a linguist or a logician, a priest or a philosopher, in which capacities only he need learn the Sāstras mentioned.]

sva svābhimata—its own special subject tattanmatānugaiḥ—By such as, are anuga—i.e., have to be follow the mata or teachings of each.

The word vyavahāra has various meanings and is a technical term in jurisprudence. Here it denotes ordinary business, profession, occupation, &c.

These lines develop further the idea expressed above that man as an ordinary social and economic being cannot do without Nīti Śāstra, whereas he need not necessarily take the help of the other sciences. The universal occupations of man (sarvalokavyavahāra), the natural fundamental and essential characteristics of human beings indispensably require for their sthiti—i.e., maintenance and order the precepts of Nīti Śāstra which is the most general and comprehensive human science.

Niti Śāstra is the very food of the social organism, its precepts supplying blood to, and helping to form the flesh of, the human society. Like food supplying the primal wants of physical life, it ministers to the fundamental interests of social existence.

Having discussed the comparative merits of the several sciences, the author is describing the universal utility of Nīti Sāstra and dilating on its special importance to the monarch. Morals have to be studied not only by the ordinary men of the world (vyavahāri) their common socio-economic interests but also and specially by the statesmen and politicians who are the guardians of the people. Nīti Śāstra is thus the science regulating social life, economic life and political life, in short, all the departments of human activity.

Nīti Śāstra tutors kings to be always on their guard by keeping them well-informed of International Politics, and thus prevents the inroads of destroyers on the political organism.

In II.29-30 the author has described the evil effects to a king of not following Nīti, viz., that the state is jeopardised both externally, and internally and totters to its fall. Here is described the evil effect to the subject of being i.e., independent (of Nīti), viz., that he meets with misery end punishment.

Peace and prosperity of the State can grow as a matter of course only if the relations between rulers and subjects, subjects and subjects, and foreign affairs are well administered according to the precepts of Nīti Śāstra; and these certainly promote the ruler’s own interests (ātmahita). It is his self-interest to advance social well-being and the happiness of the subjects and therefore to follow Nīti.

aprerita iti—un-worked for (spontaneous), natural benefits, i.e., advantages that of themselves;

There are sapta-aṅga or seven factors of the State:—(1) Sovereignty Ministers and officers (amātya) (3) Friends (suhṛt), (4) Treasure (koṣa), (5) Kingdom (6) Fort (durga) (7) The Army (bala). Each of these factors becomes weak and inefficient bhinnaṃ [bhinna] and there is the stamp of akauśalyaṃ [akauśalya] (i.e., absence of good and prosperity) on the whole State when the ruler is not well up in Nīti. It is proficiency in Nīti that maintains each department in its proper place and contributes to the order and progress of the body politic, In these lines that aspect of Nīti Śāstra is implied which is equivalent to that branch of the art of politics by which the internal constitution of the State is regulated.

tapasā teja ādatte—He gets the tejaḥ [tejas] or powers (of ruling, protecting and doing good to the people) through his tapaḥ [tapas] or penance. These two lines have no connexion with the importance of Nīti Śātra to the king described above or with what follows about time and its effects.

Measurements of time are here described as being twofold (1) Physical, according to (a) the seasons and (b) the rotations and revolutions in the Solar System which bring in days, nights, months and years. (2) Social or human, i.e., historical, according to the events and movements in man’s social life, e.g., the age of Asoka, the epoch of the Reformation, &c.

ācāraiḥ—according to the practices, movements, customs, and usages, &c.—all those, in short, which mark what has been called ‘the spirit of the age.’

The author here discusses the question as to whether time is more important than man in regulating the affairs of the world. He takes for granted the doctrine that man is responsible for bis dharmma [dharma] and therefore must be a voluntary agent, regulating his own work by bis own initiative and not at the will of other agents, e.g., time. And, therefore, the common excuse that it is the spirit of the age, the kāladharmma [kāladharma] that has done such and such things falls to the ground. It is rather advanced here that man is the maker of bis age. The spirit of the age is what is created by the king’s activities.

In describing the superiority of the king over time the author propounds a very important truth that man is the architect of his own fate. The line of arguments in II.41-44 is as follows: The ācāra makes the epochs of time, and the king makes the ācāra therefore, the king is the maker of kāla or time.

From I.43 it would appear that the author recognises the second of the above measurements of time, Historical Division according to ācāra as the primary standard of time and considers the Physical division to be within and subsidiary to it. Thus time should be reckoned not by centuries, years, months, days, &c., but calculated according to the epochmaking activities of kings. Historical movements are, in his opinion, the real basis of calculation with regard to time.

The importance of the king and his authority is here brought out by the fact that it is his sceptre that keeps each individual subject to the performance of his own duty, and thus peoples the world with really able and happy inhabitants. For the strict observance of one’s own avocations and the religious performance of one’s own duties in life are the great promoters of human efficiency and happiness.

svadharma—One’s own dharma or duty. These lines contain a praise of the celebrated doctrines of Personal Religion and Individual Morality (as opposed to those of Universal religion and Absolute morality) which form the bedrock of Hindu Sociology, and suggest the theory of adhikāribheda or Divisions of men according to their Fitness for the enjoyment of Rights on which the caste system is founded. This is the most fundamental maxim of Hindu social polity that every individual has his own religion and duty, and that religion and duty vary with the position, attainments and capabilities of individuals. This philosophy of the relativity of the duties of man to his position in society is eloquently taught by Śrī Kṛṣṇa to Arjuna in the Gītā.

The king’s svadharma or duty is to make the subjects svadharma nirata obedient to their own duties. If the king fails in his own duty, the subjects Would go astray, each from his own work in life. And this would bring in misery and disorder upon the State. Hence the or diminution of influence and importance.

The responsibility of the king to perform his svadharma by enforcing the practice of svadharma among his subjects and to protect them according to the rules of Nīti Śāstra begins from the very moment of his assumption of the royal position.

buddhyā—By artifice or by force or by heroism and not by the ordinary rule of succession. Śukrācārya is not a believer in the theory that ‘necessity has no law’ bub maintains that in extraordinary cases also his Śāstra must be followed. Nīti Śāstra is unrelenting and extremely rigid in its precepts which cannot be relaxed or compromised even in revolutionary times, e.g., when a throne falls vacant and is occupied by an usurper by hook or by crook, The usurper must not wait to have his claim formally recognised and his position well secured; but as soon as he gets the reins of government be must act upon the rules of Nīti like the legally recognised ruler of normal States.

As soon as a revolution is effected, the revolutionists must display their political ability by organising the administration and establishing security and order in the State. Śukranīti is here anticipating the sense of political morality manifested in modern times.

Some of the virtues of a king and their effects. The two lines, however, have no connexion with the praise of king of svadharma above or with what follows.

There are three classes of kings according to their nature and characteristics.

There are three classes of men according to their nature and characteristics,

The author has been discussing the classes of rulers and of men generally according to their characteristics which he attributes to the penances they perform. This idea about the penances leads to the theory of work as determining man’s future.

prāktanamapi—Man might say that destiny is determined by previous birth and not by one’s karma or work. But this is refuted by the statement that this prāktana is, after all, nothing but karma.

The praise of work introduced gradually a new basis and interpretation of the caste system,

Here is an application of the theory of caste according to merits and qualifications in the case of the Brāhmaṇa. The question is asked—who is to be called a Brāhmaṇa? The answer is—not necessarily the son of a Brāhmaṇa, nor the mail with certain colour characteristic.

Having discarded the ordinary tests of birth and colour as determining the castes, Śukrācārya in II.75-85 describes the new test of merits and occupations and enumerates the various qualities of each caste.

prāk karmaphala bhogārha—befitting (arha) the enjoyment (bhoga) of the fruits of previous deeds.

This treatise in praising karma or work as the sole factor of destiny is very particular about the work done in past lives whose effects are transmitted through successive births.

The author is discussing if there is any principle governing man’s course of life in this world or if the ends and means adopted by him are controlled by chance. By his theory of prāk karma he establishes the truth that previous lives determine some sort of a destiny, the karmaphalodaya, manifestation of the effects of work and the bhavitavyatā—future link for men in succeeding births; so that in these births his intelligence and ways and means of action very easily and spontaneously arrange themselves. These things are pre-ordained, but not by an impersonal agent like Fate or by blind chance.

kāryākāryaprabodhakā—which explain and point out what are to be done and what are not to be done.

Śukrācārya refers to the celebrated controversy between daiva and puruṣakāra, himself advocates the latter and disparages the former. He says the controversy resolves itself ultimately into that between weak and able men.

The arguments in II.88-98 amount to this. Life in this world is regulated by three things,—(a) daiva or Fate and (b) karma (puruṣakāra) or work, which again is divided in two classes—(i) prāk or done in previous life and (ii) ihārjitaṃ or achieved in this life. Of these three factors, Fate is resorted to and accused by weak arid foolish people, whereas able men do not wait for the decree of Fate but make their destiny in this life and in the next by their own effects and energisings.

Of course, if there is a struggle for existence, the fitter and more powerful can be known only by their survival.

Whatever a man does in this life is credited to his account for future births, so that whatever he enjoys in those births is due mainly to capital accumulated in the former. This idea is further developed in the next two lines.

This is a test case to prove that results of work do not manifest themselves in this life but in the next. For otherwise we cannot explain the phenomena that even by putting forth small energy a man at times enjoys considerable good. This discrepancy between cause and effect is due to the fact that much of this effect is really the income of causes capitalised, So to speak, in the past life and lying at present in the background and hence out of one’s sight.

In II.105-8 the author is discussing some of the forms which Pauruṣa or Energy should take in this life. Oue of these is the application of skill and force to do away with and remedy the evils of this world. For it is possible to undo even the surest decrees of Fate (bhāvibhāvānāṃ [bhāvibhāva]) just as the lamp can be protected iron the wind.

Fate is either good (anukūla) or bad (pratikūla) as known by the fruits (phalābhyāṃ). But each is divided info 3 classes according to the degrees of favourableness or unfavourableness.

daiva—has in I.95 been recognised as one of the factors that control human life. These lines describe the effects of Fate upon some of the historical characters.

These four lines have no connection with the discussion about Fate and Puruṣakāra above but refer to ordinary rules of morality and repeat what has been previously said about the king’s functions.

The analogy of the kingdom with the body of man and the description of it as the body politic dr political organism, which have been made much of in modern times, are suggested here though in a quite different and fanciful way.

It is not clear what is meant by rāṣṭra and how it is an aṅga or limb of rājya the kingdom or how it can stand for the legs of a human being. The analogies of the Army with the mind and the Fort with the arms are also queer and not quite comprehensible,

The State is natural and necessary institution. Man is a political animal and cannot prosper unless a relation between sovereign and subjects is established in the society.

These are some elementary notions about the king, his functions and bis duties which are oft repeated in treatises like this. The only peculiarity about these passages is the reference to names of Paurāṇik kings and the attempt to make the precept concrete by alluding to their lots in life. Can these references as well as the illustrations of the fortunate and unfortunate persons mentioned in connection with daiva be said to approach a rudimentary application of the historical method in Hindu sociological thought?

The king’s divine origin and extraordinary (superhuman) powers are suggested, His elements are derived from the gods. Each god bestows on him certain powers.

In II.144-51, the functions and general attributes of the king are described, and each is attributed to the making of his body and life out of the elements of one of the gods. These lines elucidate the text in 141-3.

The functions described above in the analogies with the powers of Nature may be grouped under the following five heads:—

(1) Protection of person and property (144,151).
(2) Administration of Justice (147).
(3) Spread of religion and culture (145,46).
(4) Philanthrophy and charity (149).
(5) Realisation of revenues (148).

Almost all the attributes mentioned in 155-60 have been implied or described in the preceding analogies. Thus the functions of the father and the guru may be taken under 145-46, the mother’s function is partly that of Yama (147) and partly that of Varuṇa (149). Yama’s function has been unnecessarily repeated. Kuvera [Kubera] in these lines is a giver, whereas in the preceding account is the protector of wealth. The brother’s work was suggested by Agni’s function. But the peculiar attribute of bhrātā as the sharer of paternal Wealth is to be noted.

The only additional function of the king brought forward in these lines is that suggested by the analogy with the friend. The king should be the protector of the person of the subjects, the custodian of their women and wealth, and the keeper of their secrets. But these are the things which people generally try to keep out of the king’s reach and interference except under circumtances of extreme necessity, e.g., in revolutionary times or when compelled by self-interest. It is strange that Śukranīti should place such confidence in the ruler under normal conditions, for it is otherwise full of the most sound and practical advice adapted to the ways of the world.

This is a very sound advice, for sometimes “a soft answer turneth away wrath.” Coercion is but a very small part of government, and it is only highest statesmanship that can discover when and what to punish and when and what to pardon. Punishment, after all, is a means to an end, and the victories of kindness are more effective and lasting than those of terror. And so mercy is the crown and glory of human virtues. Shakespeare’s eulogy is well-known.

Like ruler, like ministers.

A disease even if treated is still painful, but of course not so much as before treatment. So also if be provided against kṛtaṃkarma [kṛtakarma?] or work done, the phala may not be so much tathā as when there was no remedy (pratikārairvinā). But in any case the karma-phala must be endured

These lines contain an advice as to the observance and pursuit of Śāstras. Any and every Śāstra must not be followed, but a discrimination is to be made between that which is likely to promote one’s interests and that which is not.

naya—guide. The other reading is nṛpa (king)

Here is a complete analogy between the processes of training elephants and the senses. Just as the elephant running to and fro in the forest and committing havoc (vipramāthinaṃ [vipramāthin]) all around has to be tamed by the use of the rod, so also the senses of man incessantly wandering to find gratification in the multifarious objects of the universe and causing perturbation to the soul, have to be controlled and disciplined by the application of knowledge,

This advice about the control and restraint of the senses is the fundamental and primary lesson in the Hindu system of moral education, and the simile about wild and unbroken elephants is one of the most common devices in Sanskrit literature.

The manaḥ [manas] or mind is an independent entity in Hindu psychology; not a mere name for the processes of consciousness produced by the sensations and perceptions through the organs of senses, but a separate organ like the five senses, having its own function to discharge. The manaḥ [manas] is the director or conductor of the five organs of sensation, as described here; these have to work under its guidance.

viṣaya—technical term in Hindu Psychology and Ethics often used in this treatise in connexion with moral topics, eg., training of character, discipline, etc. There are five viṣayas, viz., rūpa (sight), śabda (sound), gandha (smell), rasa (taste) sparśa (touch), ie, the five classes of objects in the universe which can be perceived through the five different organs of sensation These five viṣayas constitute the whole universe of material objects and enjoyable things that fall within the physical reach of man.

The analogy here is between meat and viṣaya.

Just as charity begins at home, so also conquests begin with self. The capacity for mastery over a kingdom is proved by the ability to conquer one’s own self.

The viṣayas are enumerated here, and in the next few lines the evil consequences of each are described.

Here is the pernicious influence of sound (śabda) illustrated by the case of the deer which is otherwise quite innocent

Here is the baneful influences of touch or sparśa illustrated by the case of the elephant who is otherwise very powerful.

Here is the danger from rūpa or sight illustrated by the case of the

The fish is the object lesson for danger from taste or rasa.

The bee illustrates the danger from gandha or smell. The lecture on the necessity for control of the senses and the practice of self-restraint is in II.201-12 very ably and poetically delivered and reaches its climax in the next two lines.

The whole description is a very clear and concrete presentation of the nature of viṣayas and the processes of the working of passions, and a great power of observation is implied in each case. Three important professions have been indicated in the above lines—(1) deer-catching by the hunter, (2) elephant catching, and (3) angling.

Each of these three passions has both its uses and abuses.

ayuktaṃ [ayukta]—Undue, immoderate, excessive.

yuktiyuktaṃ [yuktiyukta]—due and moderate.

Thus gambling has both its uses and abuses.

Thus the woman also has both uses and abuses.

Thus Drinking is both good and bad according to circumstances. All along in this description the author is advocating the Rule of the Golden Mean: ‘Avoid Excesses.’

Śukrācārya’s system does not blindly advocate the absolute inhibition of the passions and the strict asceticism which leads to the killing of the senses. In it, there is a place for gambling, drinking, woman, anger, sensuousness and other indulgences. He gives the devil his due, and does not forget the good to be derived from, and the uses that can be made of, even gambling and drinking, His morality is austere but not inhuman, and is adapted not to the abstract human beings shut up in a convent but to the complete men with all their passions and sensibilities, discharging their thousand and one duties in this world. Śukrācārya thus arrives at a system that is calculated to bring about the harmonious development of all faculties of man without repressing or unduly pushing forward any one.

Thus kāma, krodha and lobha, passions which are ordinarily supposed to be the greatest enemies of moral nature have, according to Śukrācārya, their own parts to play in human life and are not absolutely the unalloyed vices they are painted to be.

These are sufficient checks to the wantouness of the three passions. They are allowed within these limits. Beyond these they become vices.

The advice is ‘Be married,’ ‘Be heroic,’ ‘Be wealthy,’ But taking to another’s wife is no marriage, oppressing one’s own people is no heroism, and getting another’s wealth is no richness.

The proper functions (dharma) of the three classes of men are here described.

bhūmerupārjanaṃ—Income to be derived from land by the king. The agricultural, (and other economic) functions are prescribed īn this phrase.

karadīkaraṇaṃ rājñāṃ—Independant princes to be made dependant and tributaries. The king should always try to be an overlord by conquering kingdoms and establishing an empire over them, so that their chiefs may be made to pay homage. The advice is imperialistic, The other functions are ordinary and have been often mentioned in the treatise.

Śukranīti lays special stress on the king’s own discipline and self-restraint. The greatest of his functions is considered to be ruling himself, The importance of this moral training to the king is constantly mentioned in the treatise.

Having described some of the virtues and vices of kings, the author is suggesting some of the processes by which they should try to rectify themselves. One of the most important rules of morality for the king is that which regulates his relations and dealings with the subjects, and therefore a correct estimate of their opinion and criticism is the first step to the king’s moral discipline.

The spies have to be appointed not only against the subjects, but also against the king himself and on behalf of the subjects. This Intelligence Department is to be regarded as the instrument for bringing public opinion to bear on the king’s public activities.

Two grounds are advanced for asking the king to take special care to be merciful to those who are censurers and detractors of his conduct. In the first place, the king is not likely to get full information about his own faults, for people can never be bold enough to speak the truth- In the second place, it is very difficult to put up with public censure and disprase—Fame being the last infirmity of human character.

This precept has no connexion with the preceding or the following.

Having in II.259-74 described the rules of public morality that the king has specially to observe, Śukrācārya gives an account of the faults and vices that men in general commit io individual lives and which also the king must guard against. This ethics of individual life is illustrated by concrete references to the cases of kings, Ṛṣis, Asuras and Rākṣasas.

Four means are mentioned here for determining the dharma (1) śruti—Revealed leterature, e.g., the Vedas; (2) smṛti, e.g., Dharma Śāstras (3) lokataḥ [lokatas]—Tradition and custom, consensus of public opinion (4) manasā sādhu niścataṃ cogitation in the mind, i.e., introspection and deliberation,

In II.303-8 Śukrācārcya has enumerated and briefly described the scope of the four fundamental branches of learning. In the next few lines each is being fully explained.

aṅgāni—six limbs of the Vedas, they are called. They are auxiliaries and supplements to the Vedas. A preliminary training in them is required to acquire mastery over the Vedas, for they treat of the grammar, phonetics, mathematics, etymology, &c., used in the Vedas.

mīmāṃsā—the common name of two of the six systems of philosophy in Hindu-Literature. They are (1) Pūrva Mīmāṃsā or simply Mīmāṃsā propounded by Jai-mini dealing with the rituals of religion, and (2) Uttara Mīmāṃsā or Vedānta, dealing with esoteric religion. In this line the first is meant, for Vedānta has been included in Ānvīkṣikī or Logic in I.305.

purāṇānī—These are 18 in number, constituting the whole system of Hindu theology and mythology and forming encyclopedia of the learning and wisdom of the ancient Hindus.

trayī—i.e., trio of sciences—comprising the first three Vedas, the Atharvan is not a Veda but rather a mere appendix to them all. Here Śukrācārya gives a special meaning to it.

Varta is thus a practical science prescribing rules for the maintenance of family.

Having previously described the system of moral education for a king both as the head of the state and as a private individual, in II.295.316 Śukrācārya has drawn up a syllabus of intellectual training and explained the content of each branch of learning with its utility to man.

Lines 321-30 contain ordinary precepts about companionship in powerful language.

Lines 331-42 contain the rules for regulating one’s speech in an extravagant style.

It is not size that is the strength of a State. But discipline and able management (as avyāhatājña implies) and military efficiency are the two principal conditions of the importance of a kingdom.

Not heredity but personal qualifications constitute the sole title to kingship

karṣa = 80 ratis, thus less than a Rupee or tola, for a tola is equivalant to 96 ratis. So a sāmanta is a king whose annual revenue in terms of modern Indian Currency would be between Rs. 83,333 and Rs. 250,000.

The grades of kings according to modern Indian standard:—
sāmanta—between. Rs. 83,333 and 25,000
māṇḍalika—between. Rs. 250,000 and 833,333
rājā—between. Rs. 833,333 and 16,666,666
mahārāja—between. Rs. 1,666,666 and 41,66,666
virāṭ [virāj] —between. Rs. 83.333,333 and 416,66.666
samrāṭ [samrāj] —between. Rs. 8,333,330 and 83,333.33
svarāṭ [svarāj] —between. Rs. 4,166,666 and 8,333,333
sārvabhauma—above Rs. 416,666,666.

The king is a master only in the sense that he is to protect the people’s interests, and not that he can enjoy any rights and privileges or that he can treat the people in any way he likes. His position is rather that of servitude (dasatva)

bhāga—share of national produce, royal income, revenue;

bhṛti—remuneration wages, the revenue is the salary the king receives for his services to the people.

Grades of Royal officers described in order of income—

sāmanta—
  (1) Officer with salary equal to the income of a Sāmanta as described in the gradation of rulers.
  (2) Independent ruler of 100 Grāmas
hīnasāmanta—Salary same as that of Sāmanta, but post subordinate.
nṛsāmanta—Officer who is the head of 100 grāmas.
nāyaka—Officer who is the head of 10 grāmas.
āśāpāla-svarāṭ—Officer who is the bead of 10,000 grāmas.

vasuṣaḍ-munisaṃkhyā—In this number vasu stands for the figure 8, because there are 8 Vasus in the Universe, and muni stands for figure 7 because there are seven Rishis. Hence the number seems to be 867. But by the rule (aṃkasya vāmāgatiḥ—figures move from the right leftwards) the figure 8 will be the first digit, and 7 the third. Hence the number is 768.

And this according to calculation of Prajapati. Thus:—

daṇḍa = 4 cubits.
= 4 x 24 Aṅgulas.
= 4 x 24 x 8 Yavodara = 768 Yavodaras.
According to Manu’s calculation:
daṇḍa = 5 x 24 x 5 = 600 Yavodaras.

tripañca = 15, sapādaśata = 100 + ¼ of 100 = 125. A pāda is a quarter.

Parivartana—
(1) = 4 lakh—¼ lakh = 400,000—25,000
= 375,000 yava.
(2) = 400,000 + 80,000 = 480,000 yava.

parivartana—Equivalent to nivartana for the area 10,000 cubits would give as one of its sides by square root 100 cubits, or 25 daṇḍas and this is the measure of a nivartana (I.399).

1 bhuja = 25 daṇḍa = 100 cubits.
… 4 bhuja = 400 cubits.

The difficulty of interpretation arises from the fact that a line and an area have been indicated by the same term without special care to explain the use.

N.B.—The standard of measurements in II.386-417:—

* Nivartana = Parivartana. (Cf. I.399 and I.415).

Since Manu’s standard is lower than Prajāpati’s, revenue realised according to the former would be higher than that on the latter’s system. Realisation on Manu’s system would, therefore, inflict great hardships on the subjects. Hence: the injunction that in ordinary times Prajāpati is to be followed. But, under exceptional circumstances, when there may be a great demand for money the king may use Manu’s calculation and thus practically enhance the rates of payment. In short, Manu’s system is to be reserved as a safety-valve by way of imposition of a kind of tax, so to speak, under abnormal conditions.

This is an advice against arbitrary and exorbitant taxation which is a great hindrance to the development of national resources and hence the cause of political and military inefficiency.

Gifts of land with certain restrictions allowed, but no abandonment of rights on ordinary occasions.

Land Laws (417-24)

(1) Land revenue to be realised ordinarily, according to Prajāpati’s standard, but under circumstances of financial pressure, to the system of Manu.
(2) Realisation of revenue must never be arbitrary or exorbitant.
(3) Rights to land never to be given up.
(4) Gifts of land to poor people allowable for life only.
(5) Various conditions of gifts—
(i) For gods, (ii) For public walks, (iii) For the residences of peasants (kuṭumbinaṃ [kuṭumbin])

This description about the points to be noted in the selection of a site for rājadhānā or capital contains a magnificent account of the ideals of material existence that, according to Śukrācārya, should be present in the mind of the ruler of a State, and gives an idea of the standard of perfection in secular and earthly life that the ancient Hindus or, at any rate, the wisest men among them, could conceive for the happiness.and well-being of man.

vṛkṣalatā—&c,—the place must be well-wooded. The climatological and economic importance of forests and the evils of deforestation have been receiving sufficient recognition in modern times.

paśūpakṣī—the province in which the capital is to be built up must be rich in games and abound with the resources of the animal world.

udakadhānya—Referring to the agricultural opportunities of the country. There must be a splendid network of rivers and waterways intersecting it.

tṛṇakāṣṭha—For fodder and fuel.

sindhunau—There are 3 points to be noted here. In the first place, communication with the sea is necessary; secondly, the use of boats; thirdly, the place must be ākula i.e., agitated or bestirred and moved by the arrivals and departures of the vessels,—referring to the great number of plying and active boats and the bustle of brisk commercial life.

The proximity of the sea to the capital city, or at any rate, the importance of keeping communication with it, was recognised by the ancient Romans also in the matter of a site for their “city of seven hills.” They selected a place which was “near to, yet far from, the sea;” and much of the importance of Rome was ascribed to this condition.

mahīdhara—The hills also must be near—referring to the mineral and other resources peculiar to them which must be within easy reach of the capital.

samabhūdeśa—a plain. According to Śukrācārya the hills must be near but not include the capital which is to be a part of the plains.

The chief city, as described above, must have, the advantages of the hills, plains and seas, command the vegetable, animal and mineral resources of the country, and be a centre of quick commercial activity. This account, even if it be considered to be ideal likely to be realised in the land of “Nowhere” does certainly anticipate, like the Utopia of Sir Thomas More, some of the important principles followed in the construction of modern capital cities.

Having given an account of the province the author describes the shape and boundaries and suggests the size of the capital city.

suśobhanā—Whatever be the shape, semi-circular, circular or square, it must be beautiful. Beauty is never lost sight of. So also the province in which it is to be situated has been described to be suramya or picturesque (428).

prākārā,—walls. ditches. The capital must be well protected and self-sufficient. This has been the ideal of all Indian cities in ancient and mediævul times. No town is mentioned without its walls and ditches.

grāmādīnāṃ—must have within it space for the laying out niveśinī of Grāmas, Pallis, Kumbhas, etc. A grāma does not mean what is implied by a modern village. It. is teacbnical term for a locality with certain definite measurements. Its area, as defined above, is 25,000,000 sq. cubits, that of a cros, i.e., which is something above 2 modern sq. miles.

The Grāmas, &c., must mean here the wards, districts and divisions into which a capital city is divided. Śukrācārya’s capital must be big enough to contain several such divisions.

These lines contain an account of the internal arrangements of the town.

sabhā—The scene of political activity must be easily accessible to all, hence to be located in the central position.

kūpa—Provision for drinking water must be adequate.

mārga etc.,—describing not only the means of communication and the places of public resort and amusements, but suggesting by the word vīthi (lines or rows) the great extent and area of the city. There must be many roads; and these are to be parallel to one another both in the straight and transverse lines. And as the parks also must be laid out iu rows and necessarily many in number, the implication is that the city is very large and populous. Vālmīki in his account of Ayodhyā under King Daśaratha, has decribed such rows of roads intersecting one another at right angles. Sir Thomas More’s ideal description of the roads in Utopia does not surpass these accounts.

As the sabhā is so centrally situated with regard to the people of the capital so the is to be centrally situated with regard to the sabhā.

gajāśva—The stables must not be outside the palace.

gava—The cows are of daily service to the Hindu family and hence must be within the palace compounds.

vāpī—The palace must have its own tanks and pools and be a self-sufficient unit in the supply of water for baths and drinks.

jalayantra—Mechanical instruments, pumps, spouts and other devices for rising and distributing water, or otherwise decorating the gardens as ornamental tricks.

samabhuja—The palace is to be a uniformly built structure, all its sides being of the same dimension, but its shape is not given here.

For ordinary purposes a square should be formed by four houses, two on each side, so that one may face the other in each direction. But this sort of catuḥśāla is not to be the plan for the construction of the royal residence. It is not to be an ordinary and should be naikabhuja, have many sides and be visamavāhū [viṣamavāhu/viṣamavāhuka/viṣamabāhu/viṣamabāhuka], have odd number of arms, 3, 5, 7, &c. The shape of the palace thus seems to be that of a “regular” pentagon or septagon.

The construction here is confused.

suṣṭuyaṃtrakaṃ [suṣṭuyantraka/suṣṭhuyantraka?] The royal residence should have machinery for protecting it from enemies.

Arrangements for defence of the palace.
(1) Walls with sentinels.
(2) Guards in each court-yard. Watchmen to work both during day and night each for 3 hours.

yāmikaiḥ [yāmika]—those who have to work for or the 8th part of a day.

parivartakaiḥ [parivartaka]—rotating, by those who work in turn or succession.

These rooms are mentioned below with the special purposes for which each is intended.

So the eastern houses or rooms are set apart for the supply of the primary necessaries of life.

It is difficult to find what is the propriety of setting apart these southern buildings for the purposes mentioned above. In IL 435-37 the southern side has been described as higher than the northern. Perhaps the former is meant for private and domestic purposes, the latter for public and political, cf. II.454-53.

There are to be separate rooms for drinking and weeping also. Drinking was, in fact, a recognised practice among the kings.

So the whole western side is reserved for the cattle.

It is easy to understand why all these houses are to be strong, well built and well protected sugupta.—They are to be of constant use to them, and some of them are the stores and magazines. And the necessity for making them sumanohara or magnificent arises from the fact that these being signs and indications of the ruler’s wealth and position are likely to be visited by frauds, guests and sightseers. The other houses need not be so well decorated and beautiful as they are for private purposes and hence not worth visiting.

The peculiarity in this account is that it mentions not only the school-room, the temple, the gymnasium, the store house and the magazine, hut also almost all such buildings as may be necessary to men for the ordinary affairs of life.

This statement giving the king an option to follow any order seems to indicate that the philosopher’s own prescription as to the selection of the sides for the various buildings are based on logical principles regarding health or convenience.

Having in II.435-55 described the palace, the author suggests the site of other buildings, but mentions only two.

śilpaśālā—Hall of Arts, a workshop or a museum.

Here is a bit of civil engineering.
bhitti—Wall,
vistāra—Length.
ucchrāya—Height,
koṣṭha—room.
Height of the wall = 1⅙ of the length.
Width of the wall = ⅙ of the interior of the room.

bhūmi—door.

The difficulty arising from having these things just in the front of a door may be easily imagined.

gṛhapīṭha—floor.
Śukrācārya’s civil engineering:
Floor = ¼ the height of ordinary rooms.
= ½ the height palaces and maṇḍapas.

chāda [chadi/chadis]—roof

kharpara—tiles.

madhyoccā [?]—High in the middle. The conical shape of a tiled roof is well known.

A technical term for the wall of a city or a fort not the walls of ordinary rooms or buildings.

mūla—Foundation depth, samūlaka [samamūlaka?] uniform in depth pravistāra width or breadth.

The following is the measurement suggested;
Depth of foundation = ½ the height or ⅓ the height.
Width of wall = ½ the height.

The height of the wall has reference to the activities of dacoits, a practical suggestion.

nālikāstra—Guns.

All these are conditions for strengthening the wall.

praṇālī [praṇālika]—system or row. Windows through which the outside, could be observed and missiles thrown without much injury to the life and property from the weapons of the enemies,

pratiprakāra—The erection of a second wall but less high svahīna is necessary where the main wall has not the advantage of protection by a hill.

sambhāra—provisions. necessary preparations.

upakāryyā [upakāryā]—Tents.

The Hall is to have twice the space of the other rooms.

Pumps, fans and clocks are referred to here.

sādī—cavalry,

svagaulmika [svagopaka?]—personal guards.

sajāti—of the same class, uniform,

āpaṇa—market place,

paṇyaveśanaṃ [paṇyaveśana]stall for commodities,

nivaha—mass multitude.

pattana—Town.

Beginning with the capital the author has described the palace, the council, the dwelling houses of soldiers, officers and the people generally, the serais for travellers with many details as to their sites, measurements and internal arrangements. The whole gives a very vivid picture of the socio economic aspects of town and country life among the ancient Hindus. To make the picture complete, Śukrācārya now proceeds to describe the roads and the means of communication generally.

Thus grāmas may have—(1) Padya, (2) Beethi [Vīthi] (3) Mārga, (4) Rājamārga.
Capitals, cities and towns may have—(1) Rājamārga, (2) Mārga,
Definitions: Rājamarga—
(i) 30 cubits wide
(ii) 20 cubits wide
(iii) 15 cubits wide
Mārga—10 cubits wide
Beethi [vīthi]—5 cubits wide
Padya—3 cubits wide

The characteristics of roads are highly scientific.

This characteristic of roads and principles of their construction indicates a high standard of hygienic perfection and regard for the comforts and conveniences of life. These descriptions of the town, dwelling-houses, roads, &c., are sufficient evidences to prove that the ancient Hindus, were not transcendental philosophers solely but knew how to enjoy life and use their intelligence to make it worth living and that material civilisation was not less highly developed than spiritual.

Some of these questions may have some political significance besides being mere queries to know details about the travellers. Undesirable persons may thus be arrested.

The fact that there should be such rest-houses between the grāmas is itself an indication of the considerable development of social life and the high sense of duty towards strangers and guests. And the nature of the queries as well as the principles of administration of these serais leave no doubt as to the organising capacity and administrative ability of the ancient Hindus. Even if such complex regulations for their administration are considered to be the products of the philosopher’s brain he must be credited with a good amount of political wisdom and a sound knowledge of the art of good and strong government.

The record kept by the śālādhipa would thus be a very good statistics information about merchants, merchandise, hermits, tourists, strangers, guests, their permanent addresses, position in society and the mission of their journeys. These registers might be valuable materials for the construction of a history of some of the most vital aspects of Indian socio-political life.

The account is rather incomplete because nothing is mentioned about the meals the travellers take during the night. As described above, the rest-houses are meant to be used only during the night and seem to be more like police stations than anything else. The whole method of superintendence and administration point emphatically to this.

30 muhūrtas = 60 daṇḍa = 24 hours.
The following is the king’s time-table and routine of daily work
2 muhūrtas—Studying the Budget.
1 muhūrtas—lavatory and Bath.
2 muhūrtas—Religious performances.
1 muhūrtas—Exercises, physical.
1 muhūrtas—Distribution of prizes,
4 muhūrtas—Business with the chief of prizes
1 muhūrtas—Dinner and rest.
1 muhūrtas—Study of old and new,
2 muhūrtas—Consultation with Justices.
2 muhūrtas—Hunting &c.
1 muhūrtas—Parade of troops.
1 muhūrtas—Evening Services.
1 muhūrtas—Supper.
2 muhūrtas—Business with spies.
8 muhūrtas—Sleep.
30 Muhūrtas,

A commonplace lesson on the advantages of keeping to time, illustrated by an analogy with one of the most characteristic physical and economic features of India.

abhitaḥ [abhitas]—on all sides,

aniśaṃ [aniśa]—having no night or end, i.e., permanently,

nati—bending, bowing, etiquette &c.

dvāra—Police stations, out-posts of sentinels.

The police is to be paid out of taxes collected from the people for whom it has been stationed. An application of the principle of local taxation for local purposes.

lagnaka—Security. The administration of the village police as well as the superintendence of rest-houses for travellers indicate the vast and intricate system of public espionage that was in force. Besides there was the Secret Service Department.

Searching inquiries about strangers and ordinary men necessary. Bub men of name and fame should not be made to submit to this Criminal Investigation. There was thus room for judicious discretion.

paryyaṭana [paryaṭana]—Rounds of the sentinels.

Having described the village police the author is going to give an account of some of the social moral, sumptuary and other laws that the king should pass for the guidance of his subjects.

This is a law enjoining kind treatment of inferiors by superiors, e.g., the employees by the employer, the servant by the master, the wife by the husband, the sens by the father, and the pupils by the Guru, Three classes of social and domestic relations are mentioned here:—(1) Service, (2) The School. And as in each case tìie head is a single individual like the patriarch and likely to be tyrannical, the importance of kind words and gentle treatment cannot be overestimated. These, however, are not left to the individual’s own sense of humanity and justice. The State itself, according to Śukrācārya, should issue definite decrees.

maddeśasaṃsthitaiḥ—By those who live under my jurisdiction or commands.

tulā—Weights and measures., śāsana—system, māna—standard, nāṇaka—coins, vasā—fats, kūḍha—falsehood, deceit, e.g, adulteration in some cases, counterfeiting in others.

Śukrācārya’s comprehensive view grasps almost all the economic transactions which are liable to the practice of dishonesty and deceit, and which it has been the function of the Society and the State to guard against on hygienic, economic, moral and political grounds in all times and ages.

Here, again, as in the above cases of social and domestic relations, Śukrācārya does not advocate the policy of Laissez faire. The State should come forward and intervene and protect the society from the dangers of food adulteration, false and counterfeit coins, unscientific medicinal extracts and other preparations as well as the passing off of base metals for genuine and high class things. The following are the five classes of commodities regarding which such crimes are likely to be perpetrated:—

(1) Weights and measures. (2) Coins, (3) Medicines. (4) Metals, (5) Food substances.

These are more or less administrative and political regulations different from the above which are mainly of social and economic nature.

svāmikāryavilobhana—Just as the master has been ordered to be kind and lenient towards his employees, so the employees are here commanded not to forget or wilfully damage and consciously injure the interests of their masters.

aprakāśa—hidden, screened. It is the duty of the people not only not to commit these wrongs, but also to hand over to the police, or otherwise disclose to the State the existence of the men who are in any way undesirable to the society and the kingdom. The whole society is thus enjoined to be an active information-and-vigilance-committee and an association for public safety.

Here, as in other injunction, Śukrācārya displays the highest political wisdom and the keenest insight into the principles of strong and good government. All these are based on the principle that the security of the State depends not oun the passive, virtue of obedience to the law promulgated by it but on the active co-operation of the people with it in carrying these laws into effect, Śukrācārya’s political system has many points which have anticipated the latest principles of good administration and which have yet to be realised by modern States.

These are rules regulating conduct towards superiors in age, intelligence and character, and supplement those discussed above regarding the treatment of inferiors by superiors. The king, according to Śukranīti, has to enjoin the duties of the son, the disciples and the people generally, because as the head of the State he is also the head of the society and hence the guardian of religion and morality—a principle recognised in all monarchies.

This is a further law of the State regarding social and moral interests of the people. The greatest of all dangers to social peace and political security is the existence of conflicts, disunions, rivalry and party spirit. The bond of civil society is torn asunder when the moral relations are disturbed. Hence the greatest political offender and the most criminal sinner is he who by hie conduct promotes the breach between those who should normally live in amity and peace. And Śukranīti provides against such offences by the socio-political decree issued by the king.

This is a law preventing undue use or abuse of the public places and other works of public utility, and as such indicates, in the first place, the highly complex administrative organisation to be followed by the king, and secondly, the vast number of such temples and parks, wells and roads scattered throughout the kingdom that necessitated the passing of a separate law or at any rate their consideration as an important item of the public interests of the State. The rule regarding the disabled and the unfortunates is purely humanitarian.

Here is a mention of all those practices, and professions which for public safety, social peace and future interests of the parties concerned should be endorsed by the State, and receive a royal patent, charter or license to testify to their bona fide character. In all these cases the State, according to Śukranīti, must interfere even on the principle of “individualistic minimum.” However highly philosophers and theorists might praise the principles of let-alone and non-intervention in social affairs, statesmen and pillars of States have uniformly adopted in practice the principles of socialistic interference, and been compelled to enlarge the functions of their States even against their own abstract conceptions. The hoary Śukrācārya and the modern Sidgwick are here on a common ground.

dyūtaṃ [dyūta]—Gambling, all those plays on which money wagers are staked. Interests of public safety require that there should be a limit to these practices. Hence the necessity of royal licenses.

madyapānaṃ [madyapāna]—Drinking is also to be controlled by some such law as penalises the purchase or possession of more than a fixed quantity.

madya-saṃsādhana—preparation of wines in breweries and distilleries has also to be licensed.

mṛgayā—There are Game Laws in every civilised State. The preservation of games and the preservation of forests have become in these days the accepted principles of scientific administration. Hence sportsmen must carry licenses.

kraya—These deeds must receive royal sanction, for the agreements or contracts might contain some inhuman or immoral or illegal items, and hence have to be registered in order that they may be valid.

cikitsaṃ [cikitsa]—Licences to medical practitioners and druggists and chemists.

In reading an account of these laws one seems to be skipping over the pages of the penal and criminal codes of modern States. These and other regulations point to the remarkably analytical study of legal and juristic problems and the highly developed system of jurisprudence.

śastradhāraṇaṃ [śastradhāraṇa]—Unlicensed arming is prohibited.

The following are the classes of licensable affairs:—

(1) Gambling, (2) Drinking, (3) Distillation, (4) Sports, (5) Arming, (6) Trade in—(a) Cattle, (b) Men, (c) Land, (d) Metals, (e) Spirituous liquors, (f) Poisons, (7) Deeds of contracts regarding—(a) Sales, (b) Gifts, (c) Loans, (8) Medical Profession.

nṛṇāṃ [nṛ]—Trade in men, sales, and purchases of slaves are referred to as one of the licensable affairs.

The specially noteworthy rules in this somewhat miscellaneous regulation are about navasamājaniyama or new social regulations, and jātidūṣaṇaṃ [jāti-dūṣaṇa] or defamation of castes. It seems that no new custom or breach of the existing system was allowed to the people except through royal assent. And perhaps it was an offence to speak ill of the lower castes.

kūṭa—False

aprakāśa pratigraha—Bribes (hidden receipts.) These lines may be regarded as forming something like a Hindu Decalogue or the Ten Commandments of the Hindus:

(1) Thou must not forsake your Own duty in life.
(2) Thou must not tell lies.
(3) Thou must not commit adultery.
(4) Thou must not bear false witness.
(5) Thou must not forge.
(6) Thou must not accept bribes.
(7) Thou must not extort more than what is due unto you
(8) Thou must not steal.
(9) Thou must not oppress for commit violence.)
(10) Thou must not rebel (or commit perfidy).

Śukranīti is as much textbook of Ethics as of Political Science.

ādharṣaṇaṃ [ādharṣaṇa],—aggression,

śulka—duties, rates, taxes. This law prohibits exactions and undue enhancements of payments from the master in the shape of increased wages or salary, from the merchants in the shape of augmented excise and customs, and from the subjects in the shape of exorbitant revenues. Rates in all these cases must not be increased by threats of physical violence or by crafts of diplomacy.

parimāṇa—Standard of measurement for lands.

unmāna—Unit of measurement for liquids,

māna—Unit of measurement for grains.

vimudritaṃ [vimudrita]—Ascertained and fixed.

Realisations should be made in the above cases according to the fixed rates in the schedules published by the State.

These animals must not be allowed to destroy public property or otherwise damage the peoples’ interests.

This is a peculiar Hindu custom, viz, the consecration (utsṛṣṭa) of bulls and other animals to the gods. But the State enjoins that those who would observe this socioreligious custom must be responsible for the movements of the animals in the interests of the society at large.

Here comes the legal sanction of the social, economic, moral and political duties enumerated above. A careful study of the functions of the State as suggested by the promulgation of these laws would lead to the conviction that the Hindus were not only a nation of dreamers and philosophers, but were practical men who understood their secular and temporal interests as keenly and knew how to protect them as wisely as any other nation that has contributed to the material civilisation of humanity. Comparing the political theories and practices among the Hindas with those obtaining among other nations that have risen to the height of political consciousness and have in any considerable degree wielded the machinery called the State, one is forced to hold that, after all, the test of political wisdom and statesmanship is in the capacity to promote the interests of man and devise ways and means for their furtherance, that there is great truth in the couplet:

“For forms of government let fools contest
Whatever is best administered is best.”

It is an error to suppose that the Hindus were “pre-political” and “pre-economic” people or even that they were an essentially non political or non-economic race. Political insight, the study of public interests, solicitations for material prosperity and discussions about the common weal must have been integral features of Hindu national life in order that it might evolve such conceptions of order and notions of political organisation as we have been-describing here.

In order to prevent the possibility of the pleading of ignorance of laws the greatest publicity has to be given to them. Two means are suggested—(1) The beating of the State drum to announce the royal orders and (2) The Proclamations written down and stuck as poster in public places such as squares, the crossings of streets, &c.

Roads must always be maintained in good condition and free from the aggression of robbers and cheats. The purpose is also mentioned—pādyasukhāya—i.e., for the convenience of travellers and passengers.

Six divisions of the annual expenditure are here suggested. The appropriations of the income to serveral purposes are to be in the following proportion:—

Grāmapa ... 1/12th of the income.
Army ... 3/12th of the income.
Charity ... 1/24th of the income.
People ... 1/24th of the income.
Officers ... 1/24th of the income.
Personal ... 1/24th of the income.
Six items of expenditure ... 12/14th or ½ a of the income.

The annual deposit of the surplus is therefore to be ½ of the income.

Each of these qualifications is explained below.

Two conditions make a Pandit [Paṇḍita] (1) intellectual. He must be honest and unprejudiced enough bo discuss with anybody and accept logical truths wherever received, (2) Moral- He must be a man of virtuous deeds.

vaktṛtā—Not oratory or elocution, but plain and honest speaking of the truths. Thus not an intellectual but a moral qualification is expressed by the word as used in the treatise.

utthāna—A technical term for what is known as mobilisation or state of military readiness in view of an imminent war.

From the very great precaution advised against indiscriminate use of food it would appear that poisoning of foods meant for kings or members of the royal family and of men of wealth and position generally was one of the prominent social evils of the times. For this we have an analogy in the Italian society of the Fifteenth Century.

In the next lines the author is describing the process of testing the food and the indications by which its purity is to be determined by narrating the effects of poison upon some of the domestic animals.

A mixed diet is recommended. There must be no preponderance of any one taste.

ṣaḍrasa—The six flavours or tastes are sweet, salt, pungent, bitten sour and astringent.

Military exploit and other physical exercises are described here. The king must never be without military training.

vyūha—Array of soldiers, formation of groups.

lakṣyesandhānasādhanaṃ—Which is instrumental (sādhana) in striking or hitting (sandhāna) the objective or aim (lakṣya)

In a previous part these military and manly exercises were mentioned as two important items of the daily routine of work. The author is here explaining his reason for making them an integral part of the king’s life.

iṅgita—Sentiment.

ceṣṭitaṃ [ceṣṭita]—Activities, demonstrations, manifestations.

mataṃ—Opinions, approved measures.

adhikāriṇāṃ [adhikārin]—Of men appointed as officers.

prākṛtīnāṃ [prākṛti]—The Departments of State.

parṇa—Religious student.

siddha—Magician.

The following are the rules about the administration of espionage:—

(1) The king should bear from the spies at night.
(2) He should be well-protected while in their presence,
(3) He should examine them, before appointment, as to their capacity and honesty.
(4) He should punish them when dishonest but carefully protect them during their period of work.

This is a general principle about all kingdoms. Evils of many leaders were not unknown.

‘No leaders’ would mean anarchy. So the rule of One is the only normal form according to Śukranīti. Śukrācārya’s system does not recognise a form of government in which sovereignty rests with the Many.

According to the principle of the rule of One the law of primogeniture must obtain in the matter of succession to the crown.

dāyāda—Receivers of shares, heirs,

The conflict between possible heirs is the great defect of all conditions where hereditary monarchy prevails, and the difficulty is felt both in kingdoms as well as duchies or non-regal jurisdictions Partition suits, civil wars quarrels between sons, nephews and uncles intensified by rivallies between ministers, pretender’s claims are the natural phenomena where possessions come down on the domestic system. Hence the danger both to the territory as well as the family. Both are involved in the common ruin.

The possible heirs who in their self-interest cannot but look upon the existing king as well as his direct successor as rivals and natural enemies and who would gain rather than lose anything in their deaths, must be maintained in the right royal style so that they may not take umbrage at any carelessness on the part of officers of the royal household.

Wants to seize or capture.

This, again, is a sound advice. In politics, as in other affairs, union is strength and disunion is fall. The evil of small kingdoms has been sufficiently indicated in these lines regarding leaders, and succession.

The members of the royal family who may legally hope to get throne in default of heirs, should be pacified by the grant of pensions or appointment as officers under the State, e.g,, chiefs and governors of the districts. Something like, a Feudal system is thus to be introduced by establishing a hierarchy of officials from among the members of the royal blood.

bāndhava—“A distant or cognate kinsman, and subsequent in right of inheritance to the gentile or sagotra; the bandhu is of three kinds—

(1) The kinsman of the person himself,
(2) The kinsman of the person’s father, as his father’s brother’s son,
(3) The kinsman of the person’s mother, as his mother’s sister’s or brother’s son; and the same reckoning upwards, e.g., his father’s father’s sister a son.”—Wilson.

Room.

koṣṭha—“Any viscus, as the heart, lungs, stomach, bowels.”—Wilson. It may thus mean a part of the body, a side. So pārśva and koṣṭha refer almost to the same thing. And those who go by pārśva and koṣṭha of the king may thus be roughly described as Aid-de camps. Bodyguards, Attaches or Retinue, &c.

Thus the sons are to take the seats on extreme right wing and the daughter’s sons those on the extreme left wing of the back.

These persons are to sit before him in a row proceeding from the west to the east on his right-hand side.

This is also likely to be a row proceeding from the west to the east. The two rows would thus face each other.

astra—arms which have to be thrown, missiles.

siddha—Unerring, effective.

This is a precaution against flattery and the temptation to hear praises.

With regard to the minister, the king should not act upon the principle “Silence gives consent,” for there may be due motives for their silence.

The king must have his own opinion on the top; then the individual opinions of the ministers with their reasons he will invite in a written form The final decision will rest With him. The principle of acceptance is supplied by the rule of majority.

The king is always to have in bis service competent and able-bodied men and animals, as well as effective and useful materials (sambhāra). Hence the necessity of daily examination.

Conveyance of news is a great part of political life and the king is advised to have a swift Postal Service. The post must be quick enough to carry the news of two hundred miles in the course of one day. If such arrangements could be practically made one of the most important means of modern administration must have been secured.

This is the special arrangement for the training of officers.

bhṛtipoṣitān [bhṛtipoṣita]—Scholarship-holders and stipendiaries. In this case the two lines would imply that the king should maintain students with scholarships for the study of the various branches of learning, and when they have been sufficiently educated, should appoint them to proper posts in the Government service. The lines would then refer to the general system of education financed by the state, and the method of giving employments in the State to learned scholars.

Does it refer to the system of annual examinations or recognitions of merit and the awarding of titles, diplomas, prizes to the alumni every year?

Encouragement of education, spread of learning find the development of arts and sciences are regarded as some of the functions of the king. Śukrācārya while enumerating the so many social, moral and economic functions in addition to the ordinary political and administrative functions of the State, does not forget the educational activities of what has been called the Cultur Staat.

This, however, is the very means of taking away from the people’s minds the notion of “the divinity that hedges the king” Advocates of monarchy generally make a political application of the precept ‘Familiarity breeds contempt’ by keeping the king as much away from the peoples’ gaze and scrutiny as possible and thus shrouding him with transcendental halo and endowing the royal position and affairs with a mystic grandeur. It is one of the many peculiar paradoxes of Hindu sociology that the king who is a god in human form is yet by personal contact and other ways brought within the field of public criticism in such a way as in other countries has led to the gradual devolution of bis influence and functions on the many and the establishment of a Democracy, or at any rate, the Aristocracy.

The king does net look magnificent unless he is attended by the retinue of officers and the regal insignia as well as the paraphernalia. The king alçne is no more than a dog, i.e., cannot command awe and reverence of the people.

sva sāmyaprāpitaiḥ guṇaiḥ—by those who have been made to attain (prāpitaḥ [prāpita]) equality (sāmya) with him by dint of qualifications, i.e., meritorious and well-trained.

prakṛti—As a term in Hindu Political treatises means: (1) subjects, (2) the requisites or departments of rāṣṭra which have been mentioned previously to be seven in number, (3) officers, ministers, secretaries, &c.

But the two are to be distinguished by applying the dictum: ‘All that glitters is not gold.’

Among the many duties of the king, inspection and supervision, by fours through the kingdom, of the work of bis officers as well as inquiry into the condition of the subject have been given a prominent place," He must nob be an irresponsible head, but the real controller of affairs and hence must personally study the affairs of the State.

grāmāṇi purāṇi deśān—These three terms [grāma, pura, deśa] seem to describe the three principal units of territorial administration like the township, the city and the circle of modern States.

rañjita—Satisfied, karṣita—tortured, displeased. The words point to the good or bad effects of administration.

tāsāṃ tu bhūtān vyavahāraṃ vicintayet—Should discuss measures (vyavahāra) according to the matters or complaints or petitions (bhūta) brought forward by the people. The king’s tours must not be nominal. He must be prepared to solve some of the knotty points which may have been left untouched or decided unsatisfactorily or temporarily by the servants. The right of direct petition by the subject is here, as in other places, definitely recognised.

A monarchy however divine and absolute in theory, supplies, so far as these and other conditions are mentioned, practically all the advantages of self-rule and government by the Many. The most rigid enforcement of obligations and duties from, side by side with the most lavish grant of rights and privileges to, both the governor and the governed explain the seeming inconsistency and paradox that characterise the Hindu political system, and the great discrepancy between the theoretically despotic and the practically democratic features of the political organisation,

This is a sound political maxim and is based on the observation of the fact that the people’s interests and opinions do in most cases differ from the report and opinions of the servants of the State. Hence in cases of conflict between the two, the king should take the peoples’ point of view.

Happiness of the people is the sole consideration to a king. Hence his interests must ever be identified with those of the people. And in deciding upon measures he should be guided by the truth ‘vox populi vox deii.’ Thus though the king is himself a god, the god of the king is the people. And, in fact, the king has been described their Servant getting remuneration for his work is II.375-6 where the peculiar dualism and antithesis in the king’s position have been very unhesitatingly indicated.

The combination of sacrifice with enjoyment, the harmonising of sanyāsa and asceticism with Saṃsāra and attachments, the intermixture of Nivṛtti or highest spiritual self-realisation with Pravṛtti or pursuit of pleasure in life, the perception of the Infinite in the Finite, and the leavening of duties with right are, in fact, the permanent and essential features of that transcendental Positivism, that. Idealism and Supernaturalism in the interests of the actual and natural, that Sense of otherworldliness for the practical good of this world and the happiness of man that characterise the national life and literature, and are embodied in the social institutions, of the Hindus This eternal antithesis between the human and superhuman is the fundamental bedrock of Hindu Sociology and is never forgotten by poets in their description of ideal kings and great men. It is the basis of the division of Hindu life into the four stages of Brahmacarya, Gārhasthya, Vānaprastha and Yati. The test and touchstone of true greatness among the Hindus are the approximation in life and thought, to such principles as are suggested by the phrases asakto sukhamantabhūt or ‘he enjoyed happiness without attachment,’ and karmaṇyevādhikāraste mā phaleṣu kadācana or ‘thy light is only to the work, never to the fruits.’

Is it something like Greek ostracism? This is a sufficient check to the arbitrary or foolish actions of the royal servants. Verily, the voice of the people is the voice of the god.

sakṛt—many times. sin, āgas—offences, ekānte—privately, not in public manner for otherwise people would have no confidence in the minister. As the minister occupies a very important and dignified post, the king should be very careful in scrutinising his affairs so as not to lower him in the estimation of the public.

Confiscation of possessions when dependent rulers are proved to be incompetent, or conquest of territories when neighbouring kings are found to commit wrong.

The king must never lose time in following up a victory by establishing his offices, courts, palaces in the conquered kingdom (viṣaya) in order to make the people feel the fact of conquest and organise the administration of the province in his own way.

He must display his ability not only to acquire, but also to rule and protect.

These lines prescribe the taking over the administration of a badly ruled country and granting maintenance to the dispossessed.

The period of rest as given in that daily routine described above is 8 muhūrtas of ¼ of the 24 hours.

samāharet—rescue, deliver.

This describes the natural helplessness of these, and by analogy suggests the helplessness of rulers who have been driven out of their own kingdom, unless they can have their hill stations as the basis of operations against the victorious enemies. The necessity of “Protections” for the advancement of learning is also hinted at.

These are the dictates of Diplomacy.

The king should not blame himself for his inactivity or idleness in putting forth energy when he finds that his subjects do not appreciate his paternal care.

suviphalaṃ [suviphala]—thoroughly unsuccessful.

samāsa—brief, condensed form.

adhikāra—chapter.