Chapter 2 - The Functions of the Crown Prince and other State Officials

1-2.^[1] Even if the work be a trifling one it can be done with difficulty by only one individual. What can be performed by an unfriended person for a kingdom that is considerable?

3-4.^[2] Even the king who is proficient in all the sciences and a pastmaster in statecraft should never by himself study political interests without reference to ministers.

5-6.^[3] The wise ruler should ever abide by the well-thought-out decisions of councillors, office-bearers, subjects and members attending a meeting—never by his own opinions.

7-8.^[4] The monarch who follows his own will is the cause of miseries, soon gets estranged from his kingdom and alienated with his subjects.

9-11.^[5] The wealth of intelligence is seen to be different with different men—according to (the various sources of knowledge) revealed wisdom, intuition, knowledge of Śāstras, inferential reasoning, direct observation, analogies, adventurous instincts, craft and force.

12.^[6] There are diversities of human conduct as well as grades of exce-ìence according to the degree in which they are high or low.

13.^[7] It is not possible for a single individual to know all these, i.e., the differences in buddhivaibhava (or varieties of intellectual gifts) as well as varieties of vyavahāra.

14-18.^[8] Hence for the development of the state the ruler should always appoint assistants who are high by birth, attainments and character, who are valorous, devoted and sweet-tongued, who can advise well, and bear pain who have virtuous habits, and who by the strength of their wisdom can deliver a king who has gone astray, men who are pure, and who have no envy, passions, anger, cupidity and sloth.

19.^[9] Owing to bad friends the ruler falls off from his duty as well as from his kingdom.

20-21.^[10] The progeny of Diti wore destroyed through bad associates and evil activities. Valorous and powerful monarchs like Duryodhana also went io the dogs (through bad advisers).

22.^[11] Hence the ruler should be without pride and should have good friends about him,

23.^[12] The Crown-Prince and the Body of Councillors are the hands of a monarch. They are also known to be his eyes and ears, in each case right and left respectively.

25-6.^[13] Without these two the ruler would be deprived of his arms, eyes and ears without any means of action). Hence he should appoint them on careful considerations. Otherwise there would be great calamity.

26-27.^[14] The ruler should select as Crown-Prince the offspring of the legally married wife who can perform the tasks of the state without idleness.

29-31.^[15] He may select as Crown-Prince his uncle younger than himself or younger brother or son of his elder brother, his own son or one treated as son or an adopted child or daughter’s son or sister’s son, successively according to failure.

32-37.^[16] The ruler should not even mentally oppress those persons who are eligible to Crown-Princeship for his own benefit.

33-34.^[17] The ruler should very carefully protect the virtuous, valourous, faithful and good royal children even though they are young.

35-37.^[18] Unless they are well guarded they are likely to be tempted by the interests and to destroy the ruler. Even when governed if they get a slight opening they forthwith kill the protector as lion-cubs kill the elephant (at the first opportunity).

38-39.^[19] Royal children are like infuriated elephants without drivers. They kill even the parent, what to speak of the brother or other persons.

40.^[20] Even the dullard and the child desire lordship, does not the youth?

41-42.^[21] He should keep the royal children very near to himself and always know their minds by employing craft through good servants.

43-46.^[22] He should, make the children of his family well up in the Nīti Śāstras, proficient in archery, capable of undergoing strains, and of bearing harsh words and punishments, habituated to the feats of arms, master of all arts and sciences, upright in morals as well as well-disciplined through his ministers and councillors.

47-49.^[23] He should appoint them to Crown-princeship after having brought them up with good dolls, clothed them in good dress, respected them with good seats, nourished them with good food and thus made them worthy of being Crown-princes.

50.^[24] The family or dynasty, the children of which are undisciplined, soon comes to ruin.

51-52.^[25] The child who is of evil ways of living should not be forsake (by the father). If oppressed, he destroys his father by having resort to enemies.

53-54.^[26] He should harass the child when taking to evil ways by persons who are of evil habits, as one should bind the elephant that is wicked and wild.

55-56.^[27] In the interest of state’s prosperity relatives and kinsfolk who are of very evil dispositions should be carefully extirpated through tigers or enemies or through craft.

57.^[28] If there be any deviation from this course they would lead to destruction of both the people and the ruler.

58-59.^[29] Relatives should ever satisfy the reigning king by their own excellent merits, for otherwise they are likely to be deprived of their own shares and lives.

60-61.^[30] Those who have no near relatives, those who are born of other persons and the adopted sons should never even mentally be regarded as one’s own children.

62.^[31] They desire to be adopted of a person after knowing him to be rich.

63-64.^[32] Hence the son of girls belonging to the same dynasty is superior to the others (mentioned above). For the daughter, like the son, is descended from the same limbs (and hence has the same feelings).

65.^[33] Hence there is no difference between the son and the daughter’s son as regards the offering of cakes to ancestors.

66.^[34] The king is to maintain an adopted son in the interests of his territory as well as subjects.

67.^[35] The ruler should have wealth for the protection of his subjects, not for other purposes.

68-69.^[36] He bequeaths everything to another’s son by adopting him as his own child. What can be more strange if he does not give charities and offer sacrifices?

70-73.^[37] After attaining Crown-princeship one should not get demoralised, should not insult or oppress (owing to the vanity of one’s own wealth) one’s mother, father, preceptor, brother and sister or the favourites and dear ones of the reigning king or the commonalty of the realm.

74-75.^[38] But if somebody who is outside the royal clan or family wants admittance into it the good people do not tolerate such presentation of an outsider to the king.

76-77.^[39] Even after attaining great prosperity he should abide by his father’s command, for to a child the father’s command is his best ornament.

78-79.^[40] The mother was killed by Bhārgava, and Rāma wont to forest according to their father’s commands. And it was through the strength of their fathers’ penances that they respectively got back their mother and kingdom.

80.^[41] The command of him who has the two-fold right of cursing and blessing is very weighty.

81-82.^[42] He should not display his greatness to all his brothers; for Suyodhana was ruined through the insult meted to the brothers who had also right to the wealth.

83-85.^[43] Owing to the violation of father’s commands royal offsprings even after attaining excellent positions are thrown down like meanial servants, e.g., the sons of Yayāti and Viśvāmitra.

86-87.^[44] One should always be in the habit of serving one’s father in word, thought and action. One should ever do that by which father is satisfied, one should not do that by which father gets pain even for a single occasion.

89-90. One should oneself do that with pleasure in which there is father’s pleasure. And one with whom the father is dissatisfied should be his object of enmity.

91. One should not do anything that is disapproved or opposed by father.

92-93.^[45] If through the faults of flatterers and informers the father is far from what he ought to be, one should study his nature and manage to explain matters to him in a retired place.

94.^[46] Otherwise he should always punish the flatterers very severely.

95. And he should ever know the inward feelings of the subjects through artifices.

96-97. In the morning of every day he should bow down to his father, mother and preceptor. He should then narrate to the king the work done day after day.

98-99.^[47] Thus living in the house and maintaining the unity of the family the Crown-Prince should satisfy the subjects well by his learning, actions and character.

100.^[48] He should also be self-sacrificing and vigorous and thus bring within his sway all around him.

101.^[49] He is to grow slowly like the portion of the moon in the bright fortnight.

102-103. The prince who behaves himself in the manner described above having got the kingdom that is thornless enjoys for ever the earth with his associates and councillors.

104. Thus has been narrated in brief the function of the Crownprince that*is beneficial.

105.^[50] Now are being related in brief the functions and characteristics of the councillors.

106-109. Just as gold is tested by experts by reference to lightness or heaviness of weight, colour, sound, etc., so also one should examine servants (or office-bearers) by reference to their work, companionship, merits, habits, family relations, etc., and place confidence in one who is found to be trustworthy.

110.^[51] One should not notice only the caste (or race) or only the family (in making the selection).

111-112. Work, character and merit—these three are to be respected—neither caste nor family. Neither by caste nor by family can superiority be asserted.

113.^[52] In marriages and dinner parties considerations of family and caste are compulsory.

114-117.^[53] The truthful, the meritorious, the celebrated and the wealthy, as well as men who have been born in good families, whose habits are good, who do good deeds and have no sloth—perform the duties of their master even better than their own work by the four-fold qualities of body, speech, thought and diligence.

118-119. (The good office-bearer) is satisfied with his salary only, is sweet-tongued, expert in actions, pure and firm; skilful in doing good to others and is averse to evil ways.

119-120.^[54] He observes even the son or the father who does injury to the master; is not similar to the lord who goes astray, but understands well (the situations).

121.^[55] He does not protest against the statements of his master, nor does he give publicity to any of his shortcomings.

123.^[56] He is not procrastinating in good measures but procrastinating (and dilatory) in evil ones.

124, He never picks holes in the coats of his master’s wife, children and friends,

125.^[57] Towards his master’s wife, children and friends he bears tke same attitude as the master himself.

126.^[58] He does not appraise himself, nor does ho defy anybody. Ho does not envy or insult anyone.

127. He does not want the rights belonging to others, but is unambitious and always contented.

128.^[59] He bears or puts on the clothes, ornaments, &c., offered by him and ever stands before him.

129.^[60] He spends according to his salary, is moderate, kind and also courageous.

130.^[61] Lastly, the excellent servant is he who discusses the evil deeds of his master privately, i.e., does not give publicity to them.

131.^[62] The servant with attributes contrary to those mentioned above is known to be bad.

132-133. Those who are underpaid, those who have been coerced by punishment, cheats, the miserable, the greedy, and those who speak well in one’s presence.

134-138.^[63] The passionate, the vicious, the diseased those who seek bribes, the gamblers, the atheists, the vain and untruthful as well as the envious people; those who have been insulted, and touched to the quick by harsh words, the friends and servants of enemies, and those who keep up old enmities, the ferocious and the daring, as also the irreligious people can never be gôod officers.

139.^[64] The marks of good and bad servants have been enumerated concisely.

140. Now are described the characteristics of priests and other officers.

141-143.^[65] The priest, the viceroy, the premier, the commander, the councillor, the judge, the scholar, the Sumantraka, the Amātya, as well the spy—these are the ten departments of a king.

144.^[66] Whose incomes are one-tenth more than those of subsequent men up to the spies.

145-147.^[67] The king is said io have eight departments or requisites of regal administration according to some people.

148.^[68] These eight departments of political organisation have equal remuneration.

149.^[69] The spy who is well up in (the art of reading) emotions and gestures (expressions) is a servant of these eight.

150-155.^[70] The priest is superior to all others—the main-stay of the king and kingdom. The viceroy comes next, next the Premier; then the Saciva, then the Minister, next the Justice, then the Scholar; next conies Sumantra, then the Amātya, lastly the Spy; these officers are successively meritorious in order.

156-160.^[71] One who is versed in mantras and rituals, master of the three sciences, skilful at work, conqueror of the senses, subduer of anger, devoid of greed and passions, equipped with a knowledge of six Aṅgas (Vedāṅgas) and of the science of Archery with all its branches, one who knows the science of moral as well as religious interests, one fearing whose anger even the king takes to virtuous ways of life, one who is well up in Nīti Śāstra and master of military implements and tactics is the Priest.

161. The Priest is also the Ācārya and he is competent both to curse and bless.

162. Without the advice of the Prakṛtis, i.e., the Executive officers, the state is sure to be destroyed.

163.^[72] If the king fears their control, they are good ministers.

164-165.^[73] Can there be prosperity of the kingdom if there be ministers whom the ruler does not fear? Such ministers are to be gratified like women with decorations, liveries of honour, etc.

166-167.^[74] If there be no improvement in the state whether in extent[?], population, efficiency, revenue or administration; if, on the contrary, the state be jeopardised through the ministers’ counsels, what is the good of having such men (as king’s advisers)?

168-173.^[75] The Pratinidhi or vice-regent is he who knows what is to done, and what is not to be done. The Pradhāna is he who has eye on (supervises) all things. The Saciva is the man who knows all about the army. The Mantri is one who is adept in diplomacy. The Pandit is the person who is well up in the theory of religion and morals. The Prāḍvivāka is he who has knowledge of men, Śāstras and morals. The Amātya is known to be the person who has knowledge of lands and records. The Sumantra is he who knows of the incomes and disbursements.

174-175.^[76] That man is chosen as ambassador who knows the innermost-feelings of other men, who can study their expressions and movements, and who has good memory, knows the conditions of time and place, can speak well, and is fearless.

176-178.^[77] The Pratinidhi should always advise kings as to when a thing should be done immediately even though it is evil and when refrain from doing a thing though it is good (at the proper time); make them act up to his advice; and if they do not abide by him, he should go on explaining.

179-180.^[78] The Pradhana has to discriminate between truth and untruth and find out the total amount of work among the functions discharged by all.

181-190.^[79] The Saciva has to study the elephants, horses, chariots foot-soldiers, camels, oxen, bandsmen, ensign bearers, men who practise battle-arrays, men who are sent out eastward and westward (on mission) bearers of royal emblems, arms and weapons, attendants of superior, ordinary and inferior grades, and the various classes of ammunitions; he has to find out the groups that are complete in all their parts, how many of these are in active condition, how many are old and how many new, how many are unfit for work, how many troops are well equipped with arms, ordnance and gunpowder, and what is the amount of commissariat and other contingencies. Then he has to communicate the result of his studies to the king.

191-193.^[80] The Mantri has to study when, how and to whom the policies of Peace, Purchase, partition and Penalty have to be adopted and the various effects of each whether great, moderate or small; and having decided on the course of action to communicate that to the king.

194-199.^[81] The Chief Justice should advise the king after examining, with the help of his peers in Council, the men who have brought forward suits for judgment, by witnesses, written documents, artifices, and by occult processes to find out which method or procedure is likely to be most efficacious in which case, and after determining what is the inevitable decision by the application of reasoning direct observation, inference, analogy as well as the local customs.

200-203.^[82] The Pandit has to study the rules of moral life obtaining in society in ancient and modern times, which have been mentioned in the codes, which are now opposed, and which militate against the customs of the folk, and to advise the king by those which are efficacious both for his life and hereafter.

204-206.^[83] The Sumantra should communicate to the king the amount of commodities laid by, the amount of debts, &c., the amount spent, and the amount of surplus or balance in both moveables and immoveables during the course of the year.

207-208.^[84] How many cities, villages and forests are there, the amount of land cultivated, who is the receiver of the rent, the amount of revenue realised.

209-210. Who receives the remainder after paying off the rent, how much land remains uncultivated, the amount of revenue realised through taxes and fines.

211-212. The amount realised without cultivation (i.e., as Nature’s gift), how much accrues from forests, the amount realised through mines and jewels.

213-214. How much is collected as unowned or unclaimed by anybody, got back from the thief, and the amount stored up,—knowing these things the Amātya should inform the king.

215-216.^[85] The characteristics and functions of the ten chief advisers have been mentioned in brief. One should know them by the records of work given by each.

217. The king should appoint them to each post by rotation.

218-219.^[86] The king should not make his officers more powerful than himself, and the ten Prakṛtis should be entrusted with equal power.

220-224.^[87] He should always appoint three men for each department—the wisest of them all at the head and the two others as overseers, for three, five, seven or ten years, and having noticed each officer’s qualifications for the work entrusted he should make the necessary changes.

225.^[88] The king should never give office for ever to any body and everybody.

226-227. He should appoint men to offices after examining the fitness of the persons for them. For who does not get intoxicated by drinking of the vanity of offices?

228-230.^[89] So he should appoint others’ after seeing that they are fit to discharge the functions, or the apprentices who are qualified for that task as paid officers, or outsiders in their absence.

231. He should appoint men who have his qualifications or his sons to his post.

232-233.^[90] As the officer becomes qualified for the higher and higher functions he should be appointed to the higher and higher post. At the end he should be a Prakṛti (one of the 10 advisers).

234-235.^[91] He should appoint many overseers or appoint only one officer without any overseer at all according to the importance of the jurisdiction to be managed.

236.^[92] He should appoint for other works those who are fit.

237-238. He should appoint separately the heads of elephants, horses, chariots, infantry, cattle, camels, deer, birds, gold, jewels, silver, clothes.

239.^[93] The chief of treasure, the chief of grains, and the superintendent of cooking.

240-241.^[94] The superintendent of parks, and the head of buildings and palaces, separately, as also always the superintendent of the necessaries and contingencies, the officer in charge of the religious establishments and the supervisor of charities.

242-245. The lord of the headman of the village, the collector of land revenues, the clerk, the collector of taxes (tolls and duties), as also the news-bearer—these six are to be appointed in each village and town.

246-50.^[95] Those who practise penances, those who are charitable, those who are proficient in revealed literature (the Vedas) and Smṛtis, those who are well versed in Purāṇas, those who know the Śāstras, (other than the Śrutis, Smṛtis, and Purāṇas) the astrologers, the sorcerers, those who are masters of Āyurveda (medical science), those who are versed in the religious rites and ceremonies, those who practise the virtues laid down in Tantras and those others who are meritorious, intelligent and masters of their passions—these classes of men the king should worship and maintain by stipends, gifts and honours.

251.^[96] Otherwise the king is disparaged and earns an ill name.

252-253.^[97] There are many functions which involve a multiplicity of effects. The king should appoint officers for the discharge of such functions also after considering their fitness for these.

254-255.^[98] There is no letter (of alphabet) which bears no charm, there is no root (of plants) that possesses no medicinal properties. So also there is no man who is (utterly) unfit. But the rarity is the person who can connect.

256-258. The man who knows of the various species of elephants, e.g., Prabhadra, Airāvata, Puṇḍarīka, etc., their treatment, the methods of training them, their diseases, the art of nourishing them; who can discover and distinguish their qualities by studying the roof of the mouth, the tongue, and the nails, who knows how to climb them and guide their movements, should be appointed to take care of elephants.

259. The guide with such qualifications is sure to captivate the heart of the elephant (is sure to master its passions).

260-263.^[99] The man who knows of the feelings of horses, and can discover and distinguish their qualities by studying their species, Colour and movements, who knows how to guide, train and treat them, and is aware of their mettle, spirit and diseases, who knows what is good and what is bad nourishment for them, who knows of their weight, their capacity for bearing weights, their teeth and their age, who besides is valorous, adept in military parades and is wise, should be appointed to the superintendentship of horses.

264-267.^[100] The man who has all these 'qualifications and besides knows of the yoke and the burden, who knows of the strength of chariots, and is skilled in moving, rotating and turning them about, who by movements of chariots can frustrate the aims (of enemies marked by missiles and weapons,) and who knows how to fasten and protect the horses should be appointed as master of chariots.

268-269. Those are to be made grooms of horses who are brave, versed in military parades and battle arrays and know of the movements of horses, who are intelligent and know the art of warfare with arms and weapons.

270-273. The trainer of horses is he who knows of the eleven kinds of horses’ movements such as: (1) circular, (2) galloping, (3) prancing, (4) trotting, (5) jumping, (6) speedy, (7) slow, (8) tortuous, (9) serpentine, (10) rolling, revolving, and (11) galloping at full speed; and who can ‘break’ them according to their strength and according to the uses to which they would be put.

274-275.^[101] The man who can serve the horses well, who knows how to place the saddles, etc., and who is able-bodied and brave should be made a groom.

276-280.^[102] Those who are well up in Nītiśāstras, the use of arms and ammunitions, manipulations of battle arrays, and the art of management and discipline, who are not too young but of middle age, who are brave, selfcontrolled, able-bodied, always mindful of their own duties, devoted to their masters and haters of enemies should be made commanders and soldiers whether they are Śūdras or Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas or descended from Mlechchhas [Mlecchas].

281-285.^[103] There should be appointed a head over five or six foot-soldiers. Such an officer is called Pattipāla. The Gaulmika is the head of thirty footsoldiers. The Śatānīka is the head of one hundred foot-soldiers. The Anuśatika is the heed of one hundred foot-soldiers. There should be an officer over one thousand and an officer over ten thousand troops.

286-287.^[104] The man who trains the soldiers in the morning and in the evening in military parades, and who knows the art of warfare as well as the characteristics of battle-fields is the Śatānīka.

288. The Anuśatika who has these qualifications is a help to the Śatānīka.

289-290.^[105] The Senānī is he who knows of the military necessaries, contingencies, and the battleworthy soldiers and appoints functions to the guards and sentinels.

291-292. The pattipa is he who conducts the rotation of watchmen on duty at night. And gulmapa knows carefully those on night duty.

293-294.^[106] The Lekhaka (clerk) is he who knows how many soldiers are there, how much salary has been received by them, where the old soldiers have gone.

295. The master of twenty elephants or of twenty horses is known as the Nāyaka.

296. The king should mark the above-mentioned officers with appropriate uniforms.

297-298. Those men are to be masters of goat, sheep, cows, buffaloes, deer, etc., who are skilful in tending and nourishing them and who have love for these animals.

299. Of like qualifications there should be appointed men to serve elephants, camels, &c.

300-302. They are also of warlike dispositions, domesticators of titira birds, and good teachers of parrots, and know when syena [śyena] birds fall victims to arrows as well as the inward feelings of these animals.

303-304. That man is to be in charge of gold, jewels, silver and coins who can distinguish their values by their weight, shape, lustre, colour, and resemblances.

305-306. The man who is self-controlled, possesses wealth, knows the arts of politics, considers riches as valuable as life and is very miserly is to be the Treasurer.

307-308. That man is to be in charge of clothing who can distinguish the values of woollen and silken clothes by studying the places of origin, the nature of men who have woven them, the fineness and roughness of texture, as well as the durability or otherwise of the fabrics.

309-312. That man is to be Superintendent of tents and furniture, etc., who knows the methods of dyeing, laying out beds, fitting camps, and arrangements of clothes.

313-314. That man is to be the Superintendent of the granary who knows of the species, measurements, values, essential characteristics of the grains, as well as the methods of consuming, collecting and cleansing them.

315-316. The Kitchen Superintendent is he who can distinguish the washed from non-washed food substances, and can distinguish the mixtures and varieties of tastes, who is skilled in the culinary arts and who knows of the attributes of substances.

317-319.^[107] The Superintendent of parks and forests is he who knows of the causes of growth and development of flowers and fruits, who knows how to plant and cure the trees by administering proper soil and water at the suitable time, and who knows of their medicinal properties.

320-324.^[108] That man is to be the Supervisor of buildings and palaces who can construct palaces, ditches, forts, ramparts, images, machines, and bridges, who can dig wells, lakes, tanks, and can build artificial fountains and pumps for discharging water upwards,—all this very finely according to canons of fine Arts.

325-326.^[109] That man is said to be in charge of the household who knows fully of the requisites of the king and collects the things at the proper time.

327-328. That man should be appointed to the post of superintending the religious establishments and institutions who is mindful of his own duty in life, always devoted to religious practices and has no greed and hankering.

329-332. The Superintendent of charities is to be that person who does not disappoint the beggar, does not amass wealth, who is charitable, has no greed, can detect the merits of others, is not slothful, who is kind, gentle in words, knows the proper objects of charity and is very humble.

333-336. Those who are versed in the arts of politics, have intelligence and are men of good deeds, habits and attributes, who are impartial to friends and foes alike, religious-minded and truthful, who are not slothful, who have conquered the passions of anger, lust and cupidity, who are gentle in speech and old in age should be made members of Council irrespective of caste.

337-338. That man is to appointed head hostels and inns for strangers who looks upon all' being as self, who has no hankering and has respect for guests, and who is always charitable.

339-340. The examiner should be he who is devoted to the good of others, who does not divulge other’s secrets, who bears no hatred and who appreciates merits of others.

341-342. The chief is he who inflicts punishment in such a way as not to annihilate the subjects and who is neither too cruel nor too lenient.

343-344. The head of the village, like the father and the mother, protects the people from aggressors, thieves and also from officers.

345-346.^[110] The gardener collects flowers and fruits after having duly nourished the trees with care. The collector of taxes is to be like him.

347-348.^[111] The clerk is to be he who has skill in accounts, who knows of the differences between countries and languages, and who can write without hesitation and without vagueness.

349-350. The sentinel or news-bearer is to be well up in the use of arms and weapons, able-bodied, active in habits, and humble in responding appropriately (to orders).

351-352.^[112] That man is a good collector of taxes and duties who realises these from shop-keepers in such a way as not to destroy their capital.

353-354. That man is said to be practising penances who keeps regular fasts, systematically observes the rules, regulations and rities of religious life, is bent on meditation, self-controlled, merciful and uncovetous.

355-356. That man is charitable who gives away wealth, wife and sons to those who beg for those and who takes nothing (in return.)

357-358. They are known to be Śrutajña or learned men who can read and teach (the Śrutis, Smṛtis, and the Purāṇas), who have studious habits.

359-360.^[113] That man is Paurānika who is master of literature, knows music, has a good voice and is well up in the five aspects of Purāṇas.

361-362.^[114] That man is said to be versed in Śāstras who is master of Mīmāṃsā, Tarka, Vedānta, and authority as evidence, who knows, where to place which word and who can ably explain matters to others.

363-364. That man is an astrologer who knows the Saṃhita, Science of Time, Mathematics, and who is aware of the past, present and future conditions of men.

365-366. That man is a Māntrika (magician or charmer) who can discover merits and demerits by reciting hymns or incantations according to certain order, who is devoted to hymns and incantations and who has influence with the spirits.

367-368. That man is known to be a physician who can discover the real nature of diseases by studying their causes, symptoms and remedies, and who attempts prescriptions after knowing them to be curable or incurable.

369-370. That man is a Tāntrika or an observer of the Tantras who tries to propitiate the gods by hymns and mantras other than those of Śrutis and Smṛtis on the convictions that the procedure would do good to him.

371-272. Those who are sexless, who arc truthful, sweet-tongued, come of respectable families and are of beautiful forms, should be appointed in the inner apartments.

373-376. The maid-servants arc to be those who are faithful io their husbands, practise religious rities and who arc able-bodied, not young but middle-aged, skilled in serving, and who are ever ready to do all works however humble.

377-378. They are to be appointed as secret spies who are adepts in understandig the activities of enemies, subjects and servants and who can faithfully reproduce what they hear.

379-380.^[115] The Vetradharas are to be those men with arms who can teach people coming to the presence of the king the methods of salutation, etc., as well as the seats they should take.

(?)381-384. He is the head of the musicians who knows and can produce the seven notes, who knows how to sing in union with music or dance or beat.

385-387. These lines describe the concubines.

388-389. Other servants who can please their master’s heart by their work should also be appointed by the king for his own welfare (and satisfaction).

390-392.^[116] (Among such attendants are) the songsters who awaken the king in the morning by their music, posts, guards of honour, artisans and artists, fools, ventriloquists, dancers and harlequins, who are always useful.

393-394. Those who construct parks, artificial forests and pleasure-gardens, builders of forts, (gunners) who can pierce the object they aim at by the balls thrown out of big cannons.

395-396.^[117] Those who make lighter machines, gunpowder, arrows, cannonballs, and swords, and construct various tools and implements, arms and weapons, bows and quivers, &c.

397-398.^[118] Those who prepare ornaments of gold, jewels, &c., builders of chariots, stone cutters, blacksmiths and those who enamel metals.

399-400.^[119] Potters, coppersmiths, carpenters, roadmakers, barbers, washers, and those who carry night-soil.

401.^[120] Messengers, tailors and bearers of royal emblems and ensigns.

402-403. Those who by the sound of trumpets, drums, conches, pipes, &c., can construct battle arrays, and

404-405. Sailors, miners, fowlers, menials and coolies, repairers of implements, and those who [... ?].

406-407. Shop-keepers, prostitutes, those who live upon the musical instruments and their wives, weavers, bird-catchers, artists and leather merchants.

408-409. Those who repair and cleanse houses, utensils and clothes and winnow grains, those who know how to spread beds and fit out tents, as well as governors (?).

410-411. Those who prepare fragrant resins, and who are skilled in the preparation of betels—all these humble and low workers have to be appointed to their proper works.

412-413. Truth and philanthropy are the two most sacred of all virtues. The king should always have servants having these qualities.

414-415. Envy is the greatest of all sins, mendacity is greater than envy. The king should not have servants having these vices.

416-417. The good servant is he who knows when what is to be said or done and does or says that at the proper time.

418-419. The servant should get up during the last three hours of the night, consider the duties to be performed during the day, ease himself of excreta, remember Viṣṇu and then have his bath.

420-421. Then he should finish his morning prayers within half a muhūrta, go to his place of work and study what should be done and what not.

422-423. Standing at the gate he should obstruct anybody who enters without permission, but let him in when after informing the king he has been ordered to do so.

424-425. The mace-bearer having seen that people have come into the council-room, should communicate to the king their salutations and then point out their seats.

426-427. Then he should go into the palace, and if ordered, come before the king bowing down to him as to the second self of Viṣṇu.

428-429. He should fix his eyes on half of the master’s seat and not cast them anywhere else.

430-431. He should approach the king as a burning fire; the master who is lord of life and wealth is, as it were, a snake infuriated.

432-434. He should ever serve him with care and never consider himself to be anything. He should take up his side and speak sweet words or speak clearly and distinctly when asked by him.

435-436.^[121] In disputes or discussions which involve easy problems even if he knows of the opinions of the parties, he should not say anything.

437-439. He should always be moderate in dress, and when called by the king, with folded hands and bent head, hear what he says. Then having obeyed his command he should inform his own actions.

440. Having bowed down to the king one should take his seat either on the side or in the front according to instruction.

441-442. He should not indulge in loud laughter or coughing, should desist from spitting, abusing, yawning, stretching the limbs as well as relieving the joints of the body.

443-444. He should sit with pleasure at the place where he has been ordered by the king, and give up vanity though he be old and wise.

445-446. The well-wisher should say good words even when unasked if there be some danger, or if there be something wrong in the affairs or if the time appointed for some action is seen to be expiring.

447-448. He should say what is pleasant, true, useful and virtuous, and always explain to him what is his good on terms of equality.

449. He should describe the fame of other kings and narrate the effects of virtuous life.

450-451.^[122] “O king, thou art charitable, virtuous, valorous and livest a moral life. There exists no immoral feeling in your mind.”

452-453. He should always mention before him the persons who have been ruined through immorality.

454.^[123] ‘Thou art superior to kings’—This should be said but superiority to all must not be mentioned.

455-456.^[124] The man who is aware of the conditions of time and place always serves the interests of others according to the circumstances (presented before him). He should always say therefore to kings in a manner that does not do harm to others.

457. He should never destroy the interests of the subjects.

458-459. Starved by hunger the Pandit should rather rest even as a dry pillar but he should never resort to means of livelihood that are attended with disrepute.

460. One should be mindful of those activities with which the has been entrusted. One should not desire the rights of another, nor should he envy anybody.

461-462. One should not mark the defects of others but try to remove them as far as possible. There is nothing more efficacious for creating friends than philanthropy.

463-464. One should not put off an action in the wish what ‘I shall do your work afterwards,’ but should proceed with it at once if possible without keeping it over for long on hope.

465-466. One should not divulge the secret actions or policies of the master—and should never even reflect in mind on envy and ruin about him.

467. One should not glibly consider the king to be one’s intimate friend.

468-469. One should give up companionship, intercourse and association with women, hangers-on, vicious men, enemies and those who have been forsaken.

470. One should not imitate the dress and language of the king.

471. Even if one is well-to-do and intelligent, one should not pride in these.

472-473. The skiful man should note the pleasure and displeasure of the king, by studying his inward feelings, outward expressions and movements.

474. He should leave the king when displeased, but should humour him when satisfied.

475-476. During displeasure the king causes one’s destruction and the prosperity of the enemy, and by giving rise to hopes, frustrates the fruits.

477-478. Even without anger he looks as if he were angry; and even though looking satisfied, he does no good for he speaks words feelingly but cuts off the grants.

479-480. He faces contrariwise if his virtues are narrated, and he looks to other’s sides if some work is being done.

481. These are the signs of displeasure. Now I mention the signs of pleasure.

482-483. He is pleased at the sight, hears what one has to say with eagerness, inquires about health and provides seats.

484-485. He does not fear interviewing him in secret, and is known to be well pleased with hearing words of or about him.

486-487. He appreciates even unpleasant remarks coming from him, and accepts his presents though small in amount.

488-489. He remembers him during conversation. These are the marks of royal pleasure. Service should be rendered to him.

490-491. One should always put on the clothes, uniforms and emblems granted by the king, and ever communicate to him the excess or deficit in one’s jurisdiction.

492. He should hear of or narrate the stories relating to him.

493-494. If through the fault of spies and secret officers the king says anything wrong, one should hear that in silence but not accept it as a truth.

495. One should never desert a good master who has fallen into distress.

496-497.^[125] One should daily wish for the good of him whose food he, has taken even once in life. Should not that of the Protector be wished for always?

498-499. The subordinate may become the chief in time through constant service. The chief may also become subordinate through idleness in service.

500-501. The man who is ever serviceable soon becomes the king’s favourite. He performs gladly the work that belongs to his jurisdiction.

502. One should not do mean works, and the king should not also order for such.

503-504. But in the absence of one who is to do that work, the king’s order should be obeyed. For even superior men have to do inferior works which become duties in time.

505-506. One should not desire harm for one with whom the king is pleased, nor should display the greatness of one’s own functions.

507-508. The officers should not envy one another, nor should they ever get into conflicts. For the officers have appointed by the king each to his own post.

509-510. Where the officers and the king both are in good order there wealth is permanent, extensive and available.

511-512. The king should not express the deeds of another officer though he has heard of them nor should he hear of them through some other source.

513-514. Those officers who do not explain what is good and what is harmful to the king are really his secret enemies in the form of servants.

515-516. The king who does not listen to the counsels of ministers about things good and bad to him is a thief in the form of a ruler, an exploiter of the people’s wealth.

517-518. Those ministers who in concert with princes militate against the king(?) are secret thieves.

519-520. Princes, even if young, should not be disregarded by ministers, but should always be carefully addressed in respectful terms.

521-522. One should never point out the defects of their character to the king. For love of wife and children is very great, their slander is not likely to do good.

523-526. ‘I am sure to accomplish first what is absolutely necessary for the king even though at the risk of life. Please command me’—Thus saying one should at once proceed with the work according to one’s ability. And one should sacrifice his life even for great deeds and for kings.

527-528. The servant is for maintaining his kith and kin, never for other purposes. All servants exploit wealth, while the king takes life.

529-530. The king takes the life of servants in warfare and other great deeds. And the servant takes away the wealth of the king in the form of wages.

531.^[126] If they take otherwise they become destroyers of themselves.

532-533. The king with the princes is always to be respected by Amàtyas and other ministers. Below them in respectability comes the order of nine ministers, next the army of officers.

534. The commander of ten thousand infantry is to bo respected like the ministers. The commander of one thousand is slightly lower.

535. One should not play like the king, and should encourage him while at play.

536. The queen as well as daughters are not to be disrespected by the ministers.

537. The relatives of the king as well as their friends have to be duly respected.

528. When called by the king one should come immediately to him leaving thousand important actions.

539. One should not express even to a friend the well-considered deeds of kings.

540-541. One should not desire anything more than the salary that is not given and should not want salary in the course of the work.

542. One should not destroy the interests of others through greed.

543. One should protect the king by one’s own wife, children and wealth at the proper time.

544. One should not receive bribes nor should explain things to the king wrongly.

545-546. One should advise the king for his benefit in some secret place when he is found to be an oppressor and punisher without rhyme or reason.

547. One should not do anything that is good to the king but is harmful to the people.

548. Thus new taxes and duties are vexatious to the people.

549-550.^[127] If the king be an enemy of virtue, morality and strength, people should desert him as the ruiner of the state.

551-552. In his place for the maintenance of the state, the priest with the consent of the Prakṛti, i.e., ministers should install one who belongs to his family and is qualified.

553-554. The man who carries on astra, i.e., missile, should sit at a place beyond the range of the weapon, the man who carries a śastra, i.e., an arm, at a distance of ten cubits, and king’s friends where instructed.

555. Ministers and clerks should always sit at a distance of five cubits.

556. The king should not enter the assembly without commanders and without full armour.

557-561. The commander is of a high grade, but the priest is of a superior order; friends and relatives are of the same order. Ministers have a very high status. The officers have a middle position. The audience and clerks are of a low status. The servants and attendants are of the lowest rank. But even lower than these are the menials.

562-564. In receiving the priest and ministers the king should cheerfully get up from his seat, come before them, offer them seats and inquire about their health, &c.

565. In the case of the officers he should sit gracefully.

566-567. The king should have three character—that of the autumn moon to the learned people, that of the summer sun to the enemies, and that of the spring sun to the subject.

568-569. If to people below the rank of Brāhmaṇas the king should behave with leniency, these lower orders would overpower him just as the elephant-catchers master elephants.

570-571. The king should not indulge in jokes or sports with the servants. These cause insult to kings and are dangerous to them.

572-573. These lower orders approach the king separately for their self-interest after finishing their work well, for all are selfish.

574-575. They frustrate, disregard and contradict the king’s instructions, eat the royal food, do not stay at their own functions.

576-577. They divulge his secrets and make public his bad actions, put on the dress of the king and always deceive him.

578-579. They decorate their wives and laugh when the king is angry, behave shamelessly and disregard the king in a moment.

580. They disobey his orders and do not fear to do misdeeds.

581. These are the defects due to jokes and sports indulged in by the king with men of lower orders.

582-583. The officer or servant is not to do anything without the king’s written order. Nor should the king command anything great or small without written order.

584. A written document is the best guide, for to err is human.

585-586. Both the king who commands without writing and the officer who does anything without written orders are thieves.

587.^[128] The written document with the king’s seal is the real king. The king is not a king.

588-590. The best is the document which bears the king’s seal and handwriting. The document written by the king is of a good validity, while that prepared by ministers is tolerable. That written by the citizens is inferior. But all are valid.

591-594.^[129] Amātyas, princes and officers who have been entrusted by the king with responsibilities should submit written reports of their work once a day, once a month, once a year or once during many years.

595-596. The officers should keep a memorandum or precis of written orders passed by the king, for with time men forget or mistake past things.

597-598. In ancient times writing was created by Brahmā to remind what happened as the symbol or representative of vocal sounds and tones.

599-600. Documents are of two kinds—for describing works or deeds and for keeping accounts of income and expenditure. Each, however, has been greatly diversified through varieties of usage and practice.

601-602.^[130] A Jaya patra or a document of judgment is one that contains an account of the case or suit brought forward, arguments for and against, and also the decision.

603-604. An ājñā patra or document of order is one by which functions are entrusted to tributary chiefs, officers or governors of districts.

605-606. A prajñā patra or document of notification is that by which priests, sacrificers, worshippers and other venerable men are informed of the rites they have to perform.

607-608. A śāsana patra or a document of public notice and regulations for the people is that which contains the king's own signature and date and begins in the following way: “Hear ye all, or Notice is hereby given that, etc., such and such things must be done by you, etc.”

609-610. A prasād patra or document of pleasure is that by which the king confers lands, etc., on persons satisfied with their services, valour, etc.

611-612.^[131] Bhoga patra or the documents giving right to enjoyment, the document giving right to the tribute, and the document giving right to presents or privileges may be for generations or for certain stated periods.

613-614. The brothers and relatives who have voluntarily separated themselves from one another frame a document describing the partition. That is called bhāgalekhya or partition deed.

615-616.^[132] One should frame a document after giving away or bequeathing houses, lands, etc. That is called dāna patra or deed of gift which is indestructible and cannot be received back.

617-618. That document is called a deed of sale or purchase which contains an account of the measurements, values and witnesses of the dealings in houses and lands.

619-620.^[133] A sādi patra is that document which contains an account of the things pledged, values received and witnesses in the matter of a transaction which involves the pawn or pledge of movables or immovables.

621-622. A satya lekhya is that agreement which two townships make between themselves while the samvit patra is the treaty between two kings to observe dharma without fighting with one another.

623-624. A ṛṇa lekhya or document of loan is known to be that which contains an account of the witnesses and is framed on the receipt of some money at interest.

625-626. A Buddhi patra or document of purgation is that which contains an account of witnesses and is framed after some curse has been worked out or a penance has been duly performed.

627-628.^[134] A sāmayika patra or business deed is one which individuals frame after combining their shares of capital for some business concern.

629-630.^[135] A document which has not been executed by an assessor or an official or a member of the Court and which is admitted by the opposite party is said to be a deed of compromise.

631-632. The letters that are written to know of each other’s works and circumstances should begin with words of blessing and grace and contain reference or reply to previous affairs.

633-634. They should not be vague, and mysterious, but be distinct in letters and words, and should contain the names of themselves 'and their parents.

635-636. These should be duly attended with the words of respect in singular, dual or plural number and marked with the year, month, fortnight, day, name and caste of the writers.

637-638. A kṣema-patra is that which begins with obeisance or blessing, which fully explains the affairs and is systematic and is meant for master, servant or those who are to be served.

639-640. That which contains all these characteristics and describes an attack upon oneself or refers to some pain suffered is called bhāṣā-patra,

641-642.^[136] Thus have been mentioned in brief the various documents describing deeds or actions together with the characteristic features of each. Now is being described the other class of writings by which accounts of receipts and disbursements are kept.

643-644.^[137] The documents for keeping accounts are of various kinds and designated under different names according to the differences in amount great or small, values and measurements.

645-646.^[138] An income denotes the bringing under possession gold, cattle, grains, etc., annually, monthly or daily.

647. An expenditure denotes the giving away of possession of wealth to others.

648. Income may be new as well as old.

649.^[139] Expenditure is of two kinds—for enjoyment or for exchange.

650-651. Accumulated wealth is of three kinds, that whose proprietary rights are known to belong to others, that whose owners are not known, and that which is surely one’s own.

652.^[140] The wealth, the proprietary rights of which belong to others, the first class of accumulated wealth is, again, of three kinds, that which has been kept as pawn or security by others, that which has been realised by begging, and that which has been collected through loan.

653-355.^[141] Aupanidhika wealth is that which has been placed with one by good people through confidence. Yācita wealth is that which has been collected without any consideration of interests, e.g., ornaments, &c., while Auttamarṇika wealth is that which is borrowed at some interest.

656-657. That wealth whose owners are unkown (i.e., the second class of accumulated wealth) is illustrated by gems and jewels picked up in streets.

658.^[142] That wealth which surely belongs to oneself (i.e., the third class of accumulated wealth) is again, of two kinds normal and artificial.

659-661. That income is said to be normal which grows regularly by days, months or years.

662-664.^[143] Profits of sale, interest, wealth realised by services rendered, rewards, remuneration, wealth conquered, &c., all these constitute adhika (increase) class of one’s own wealth. All else is normal.

665. Accumulated wealth is of two classes, last year’s surplus or balance. and the current year’s receipts.

666-667.^[144] Each of adhika and sāhajika or normal i.e., each of both the classes of one’s own wealth is again of two kinds, pārthiva (territorial) and non-pārthiva,

668-670. Pārthiva income is that which comes of land, of the earth. That again is various sources, natural waters, artificial waters, villages and cities.

Income from the land is again divided into various classess owing to the divisions of land and great, small or medium amounts.

671-672.^[145] The duties, fines, royalties on mines, presents and contributions, &c., are known to constitute non-territorial income according to writers and specialists.

673. Expenditure is named after the purpose for which wealth has been realised.

674. Expenditure also can be both great and small.

675. Expenditure falls into two heads—that which will come back, and that which destroys the right for ever.

676-677. That disbursement is said to be ābṛtta [āvṛta?], i.e., to have the attribute of being able to come back which is hoarded, deposited with others, exchanged, or lent to debtors with or without interest.

678-681. Nidhi is that which is hidden underground, upanidhi is that which is placed with others as deposit. That is said to vinimayīkṛta or exchanged which is received on payment of some price. That is said to be ādhamarṇika which is given to others with or without an increase. Of these that with interest is called a loan or Ṛṇa that without interest is called yācita or got by begging.

682. That which does away with proprietary right is of two kinds, worldly and other-worldly.

683-684. Aihika or worldly disbursement is divided into four classes—price or return of value, reward, salary and food (and other necessaries). Pāralaukika or other-worldly disbursement (is innumerable and) admits of infinite divisions.

686-688. Pratidāna is known to be that which is paid by way of price. Pāritoṣika is that which is paid as reward for service, valour, etc. Vetana is that which is paid as salary or wages.

689-691. Upubhogya is said to be that which is paid for grains, clothing, houses, parks, cattle, elephants, charoits, etc., acquisition of learning, kingdoms, wealth as well as for protection.

692-696. Houses are meant for gold, jewels, silver, coins, etc., musioial instruments, arms and weapons, clothes, grains and other necessaries, ministers, arts, play, physician, cattle, cooking and birds. Expenditure on these items is called bhogya.

697-698. Pāralaukika expenditure is of four classes—that for penances, sacrifices, worship and charity.

699-701. Both income and expenditure are of two classes, āvartaka and nivarti

702-703. The accountant or scribe who keeps accounts of income and expenditure should part with goods after writing and receive goods after writing in such a way as not to cause diminution or increase in amount.

704-706. Incomes and expenditures are of various kinds owing to the

varieties of source, amount, relation, as well as measurement, number, and weight.

707-708. For business purposes experts’ desire sometimes the number, sometimes the weight as methods of measurement.

709-710. A Māna is known to be the standard of the aṅgula, unmāna is known to be the standard of the balance, Parimāṇa is the standard of vessels. Saṃkhyā is the standard of numerical notation, one, two, &c.

711. One should use these standards according to the needs of each case.

712-713. Dravya or goods is silver, gold, copper, coined for commercial purposes, cowries and gems for use.

714. Dhana or wealth is cattle, grains, clothes and grass.

715-716. Gold which belongs to ownself acquires a value in commercial transactions and an object comes into existence on this earth through the concurrence of several causes.

717. The mūlya of a commodity is the price paid for acquiring it.

718-719.^[146] Prices of commodities are high or low according as they are obtainable with or without ease and according as they do or do not possess attributes.

720-721. One should not fix a low price for gems and minerals. Their depreciation is due to wickedness of kings.

729-730. The king after seeing and studying the document should place his handwriting wherever he likes.

731-738. The Mantri, Chief Justice, learned adviser as well as the ambassador should write “This document has been written with my consent.” The Amātya should write ‘Well written is this,’ the Sumantra then should write ‘Well considered.’ The Pradhāna should write ‘True.’ The Pratinidhi is to write ‘It can now be approved.’ The Crown-Prince should write ‘It should be accepted.’ And the Priest is to write ‘approved.’

739-740.^[147] They should put down their seals over it at the end of the writing. And the king is to write and sign ‘accepted.’

741-744. As it is not possible for the king to see fully all details owing to the pressure of work (multiplicity of duties,) the documents are generally to be examined by the Crown-Prince and other advisers who are to write upon it with their seals. And the king should at once write ‘Seen.’

745-646. Incomes should be written first, then the disbursements; or incomes towards the left and disbursements towards the right of the page.

747-773. These lines describe the technique of keeping acccounts and will not prove interesting to the general readers.

774. Writing has been described in brief which is an aid to men’s memory.

775-776. Guñja, Māṣa, Karṣa, Padārtha and Prastha, each is equivalent io ten times the item preceding it. An ādhaka is equivalent to five prasthas.

777-778.^[148] Eight āḍhakas constitute one armaṇa, twenty armaṇas make one khārikā. These measures differ with countries.

779-780. A vessel five aṅgulas deep and four aṅgulas wide is known io be the measure of a quarter of prastha by specialists.

781-782. Numbers, either in ascending or descending order are written from left to right and these being successively multiplied by ten reach up to the numeration called “Parārdha” (10).^[149]

783-787. It is not possible to define number owing to the immensity of time. The lifetime of Brahmā is said to be two parārdhas by the learned—unit, tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands, millions, &c.

788-789. Time is divided according to three systems—Solar movement, Lunar movement and according to Sāvana.

789-790. In making payments of wages one should always take the solar time, in augmenting interest one should take the lunar time. And the Sāyana system should be followed in [giving] daily wages.

791-792. Remuneration can be paid according to time, work or according to both. It is to bo paid therefore as arranged, i.e., according to contract.

793-794. ‘This weight is to be carried by you thither, and I shall give you so much for your work.’ Remuneration calculated on this system is according to work.

795-796. “Every year, month of day I shall pay you so much.” Remuneration calculated on this idea is according to time.

797-798, ‘So much work has been done by you in so much time I shall pay you therefore so much.’ Remuneration thus calculated is according to both time and work.

799-802. One should neither stop nor postpone payment of salary. Moderate remuneration is said to be that which supplies the indispensable food and clothing. Good wages is that by which food and clothing are adequately supplied. Low wages ia that by which only one can be maintained.

803-804. According to the qualifications of the workers there should be the rates of wages fixed by the king carefully for his own welfare.

805-806.^[150] Wages is to be so fixed that the worker may maintain those who are his compulsory charges.

807-808.^[151] Those servants who got low wages are enemies by nature. They are auxiliaries to others and seekers of opportunities and plunderers of treasure and people.

809. Wages of Śūdras is to be just enough for food and raiment.

810. The man who maintains meat-eaters is visited with their sin.

811-812. The wealth that is stolen by the Brāhmaṇa leads to good life hereafter, and the wealth that is given to the Śūdra leads only to hell.

813-814. Servants are of three kinds—inactive, ordinary and quick. Their wages therefore have to be low, ordinary, and high respectively.

815-816. For the discharge of their domestic duties servants should be granted leave for one yāma during day time and three yámas by night. And the servant who has been appointed for a day should be allowed for half

817-818. The king should make them work except on occasions of festivities, but in festivities also if the work be indispensable excepting in any case the days of Śrāddha.

819-821. He should pay a quarter less than the usual remuneration to the diseased servant, pay three months’ wages to the servant who has served for five years; six months’ wages to the servant who has been long ill; but not more to any body.

822-824. Even a slight portion should not he deducted from the full remuneration of a servant who has been ill for half a fortnight. And a substitute should be taken of one who has lived for even one year. And if the diseased be highly qualified he should have half the wages.

825. The king should give, the servant fifteen days a year respite from work.

826-827. The king should grant half the wages without work to the man who has passed forty years in his service.

828-829. For life, and to the son if minor and incapable, half the wages, or to the wife and well behaved daughters.

830-831. He should give the servant one-eighth of the salary by way of reward every year, and if the work has been done with excetional ability one-eighth of the services rendered.

832-833. He should give the same salary to the son of the man who died for his work, so long as he is a minor, otherwise should pay the remuneration according to the offspring’s qualifications.

834-835.^[152] He should keep with him (as deposit) one-sixth or one-fourth of the servant’s wages, should pay half of that amount or the whole in two or three years.

836-837. The master by harsh words, low wages, severe punishments and insult, brings out in the servant the attributes of the enemy.

838-839. Those who are satisfied with wages and honoured by distinctions and pacified by soft words never desert their master.

840-841. The worst servants desire wealth, the medium want both wealth and fame, the best want fame. Reputation is the wealth of the great.

842-843. The king should satisfy both his servants and subjects according to their qualifications, some by spreading out branches, others by giving fruits.

844-845. He should gratify the others by gentle looks and smiles, soft words, good feast and clothes, and betels and wealth;

846-848. Somebody by inquiries about health, etc., and the grant of privileges, bearers, ornaments and uniforms, umbrellas, &c.

849-852. By mercy, obeisance, respect, attendance, services, knowledge, love, affection, association, offer of half one’s seat or the full seat, praise or recital of the deeds done for the good of others.

853-855. He should mark those who have been his employees by the proper insignia of office placed on steel, copper, bronze, silver, gold and jewels.

856-857. For distinguishing from distance he should separate the officers by clothing, crowns, and musical instruments, &c.

858. The king should not give to anybody the uniform that is peculiarly his own.

859-861.^[153] Ten advisers have been mentioned beginning with Priest. All of them are of the Brāhmaṇa caste. In their absence Kṣatriyas are to be appointed, Vaiśyas in their absence again but never Śūdras are to be appointed even if they be qualified.

862-863. The village head should be appointed a Brāhmaṇa, the clerk is to be a Kāyastha. The tax-collector is a Kṣatriya. The lord of sahasa is also a Kṣatriya.

864. The Collector of duties is a Vaiśya, and the sentinel is of Śūdra caste.

865-866. The Commander is to be a Kṣatriya, and in his absence a Brāhmaṇa. Neither Vaiśya nor Śūdra nor a coward.

867. The Commander is to be valorous and (so) may be selected from all castes.

868. This [fighting] is the duty of the four pure as well as of the mixed castes, although it is not a holy [duty].

869. The king augments the happiness of the caste to which he himself belongs.

870-874. The servant should desert such a king as does not remember good done for him, is not satisfied with good service, does not remember the connexions between remarks, is suspicious, and gives pain to feelings when aggrieved.

875. Here have been narrated the marks as well as functions of princes and others.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

alpataraṃ [alpatara]—too small, i.e., insignificant, of no importance. This word is contrasted with mahodayaṃ [mahodaya] the epithet applied to rājyaṃ [rājya] or state.

mahodayaṃ [mahodaya]—of great splendour or eminence, i.e., of considerable importance in size and interests. A mahodaya kingdom would thus entail heavy responsibility on the king.

kimu—what is to be said, i.e., it goes without saying that a vast and flourishing kingdom cannot be managed by an individual without the aid of assistants.

These two lines introduce the idea of the importance of councillors and assistants in public affairs and supply the rationale of bureaucratic organisations.

[2]:

naiko—not alone. The king is a god no doubt, but Hindu Sociology does not make him infallible. The limitations are fully recognised, and moral as well as constitutional restraints are imposed upon him as upon other men. The Theory of the Divine Right of Monarchs has therefore to be understood here with great modification; and the notions of European savants about the infallibility and divinity of Kings and Popes must not be imported into the study of Hindu Sociopolitical institutions.

artha—generic term for interests, motives, ends, whatever minister to the wants of man and satisfy his cravings; here the interests of Society as a political organisation.

sarvavidyāsu—etc.—Śukrācārya like John S. Mill considers the hypothetical case of an all-knowing ruler, and like the great English philosopher of the 19th century discusses his claims for ‘absolute’ rule in almost the self same way. The physical magnitude, if not anything else, is too much for one man, and hence one-man-rule, however well-meaning and beneficent, is positively and unequivocably forbidden.

[3]:

sabhya etc.—Here are mentioned four classes of persons whose opinions should be Studied by the ruler before adopting any measure. He is never to pursue his own ideas only. The Hindu monarch can never be arbitrary.

Ancient Hindu statesmen and philosophers placed restraints upon the king not simply by devising rules of morality and social etiquette to be strictly followed by him as by all other men but also by prescribing regular courses of instruction and training as well as by imposing what maybe regarded as the positive and direct checks of a constitutional government.

[4]:

Here are mentioned some of the evil effects of arbitrary government and one-man-rule. Thiee classes of evils are enumerated:—

(1) anartha—i.e., the miseries and disasters that may befall a people, e.g., poverty, crime, oppression, etc.
(2) The ruler my be deprived of his rāṣṭra. Cf. ‘cashiering’ the king for misconduct.
(3) The prakṛti or subjects generally may rise in rebellion, and there may be general misrule and anarchy all over the land.

So in the interests of himself as well as the nation, to prevent all sorts of disorders in the common-wealth as well personal ignominy and loss, the king should think thrice before making himself sole master and realising the condition implied in the passage ‘I am the monarch of all I survey—My, right none there is to dispute.’

svātantrya—i.e., the situation in which one is one’s own master—the condition of unchartered freedom in which there is nobody to control one’s action and dispute one’s rights

[5]:

Nine sources of human knowledge are enumerated here—i.e., nine classes of intellectual gifts with which man has been endowed and may be equipped.

puruṣe puruṣe, etc.—There are men and men according as the nature and character of the mental outfit are considered for the ingredients of this intellectual framework are exceedingly varied. And therefore human aptitudes and eharacteristics are not at all uniform but extremely diverse,

In the first place sources of knowledge are various and the characteristics of men must vary with the kind of illumination they can provide for themselves—direct experience or artifice, jugglery or intuition. In the second place, it is not likely that every man should have at his command all these sources of intellectual power. And in the third place, the proportion of each possessed by all men is not the same. Nature does not, in fact, repeat itself in the making of man as in its other operations.

anubhava—Intuitions or inward promptings of the heart.

āptavākya—The words of those who may be trusted as infallible authorities, because of their character and attainments. Āpta is a technical term in Hindu Philosophy denoting the persons who by their spiritual strength as well as gifts of intellect have attained a position in which they can directly visualise the highest truths of the universe, who are in fact Ṛṣis capable of ‘seeing’ even in spite of spatial or temporal obstructions Their knowledge may thus be regarded as ‘revealed,’ it does not come through observation or inference as that of ordinary men.

anumāna, etc—This list of nine kinds of human knowledge contains also the celebrated four method of truth-investigation in Hindu logic e.g., āpta, anumāna(Inference), pratyakṣa (direct perception) and sādṛśya (i.e., upamāna—analogy, similitude &c).

āgama—Textbooks of Śāstras, Cedes, Scriptures.

Having described the varieties of human intelligence and character, Śukrācārya refers in the next line to the varieties of human affairs and relations.

[6]:

vyavahāra—a technical term, in Hindu Social Sciences, and a most ‘chartered’ word conveying almost any idea. Here it means affairs, relations, conduct, situations, &c.

[7]:

In I.3 Śukrācārya took the provisional case of an all-knowing monarch. Here he demolishes that hypothesis and rejects altogether the theory that a man may be omniscient for the very nature of the case goes against the idea.

So to the argument of physical magnitude, extensity and vastness of political interests, is added that of intellectual weakness and incapability of man. Man cannot be omnipresent, he cannot also be omniscient, and therefore he must never be made omnipotent. Political checks and restraints are to follow immediately upon his natural (physical and intellectual) limitations.

[8]:

In selecting his assistants and advisers the king should consider the following classes of qualifications: (1) Hereditary—In all social relations, family references weigh considerably in Hindu world. (2) Moral—It is to be seen whether they ate free from the ordinary vices of sloth, avarice, etc, and also if their habits of life are religions (dharmarata) if they are faithful and devoted to the master’s interests and if they are disposed to offering healthy advice (3) Physical—The assistants must also be painstaking, indefatigable, capable of undergoing strain and pressure of work (kleśasaha) as well as bold and courageous (śūra) (4) Intellectual—The councillors ot kings must be pre-eminent by their wisdom and experience in order that they may be able to dissuade their masters from bad ways of life and conduct. (5) Diplomatic—They are to be priyaṃvada, i.e., of gentle manners, courteous, affable and graceful in deportment, conversation and relations with kings, etc., &c., they must be perfect masters of etiquette.

bhakta—devoted. This is both a moral and a political qualification. Devotion and Faithfulness are virtues not simply of private morality—but are very necessary in public life also; for obedience is the bond of rule, and vote of want of confidence is a serious charge against a minister.

nimatsara—unenvious.

[9]:

This line supplies the sanction for good selections of ministers. Any body and every body should not be trusted as councilors.

[10]:

Instances of failure are here culled from the Purāṇas and the Mahābhārata to prove the evil effects of bad company and injudicious selection of ministers.

balādhikāḥ [balādhika]—having considerable prowess. Courage and strength count for nothing if counsels are bad.

[11]:

abhimāna—egotism, over-confidence in one’s own self. The king should not have too much faith in his own powers but seek the assistance of well-wishers, He should not think it beneath his dignity to be counselled by his friends. Hence the propriety of the term nirabhimāna.

[12]:

The prince is the right hand, right eye and right ear, whereas the Ministers constitute the left baud, left eye and left ear.

The idea that these assistants are the limbs of a ruler was prevalent in the times of Papal Supremacy in mediæval Europe when the legates, Cardinals pardoners and other instruments of the Pope were regarded as his hands and eyes to a certain extent, his representatives and agents in temporal and spiritual affairs of the peoples. The conception is that the rulers project themselves, so to speak, in and through their underlings and associates in order that they may successfully cope with the varied responsibility of big affairs. Like democracy or popular government, monarchy or one-man-rule also has thus to be divided into two classes, e.g., direct and indirect, (i.e., through respresentatives and agents),

savya—left. There is no special significance in assigning right or left place to any of these assistants. Unless it be that the Crown-Prince holds a more dignified position than the officials as the right-hand is stronger than the left.

[13]:

The natural limitations of an individual may be considerably minimised if there are instruments to add to the sense-organs. The King’s advisors are such instruments. Their observations, examinations and scrutinies reveal many facts of the political world which without them would have lain in the dark.

[14]:

mudrā—Idleness

dharmapatnīja—born of dharmapatnī. There may be various wives according to the various classes of marriage.

dharmapatnī—is the wife who is allowed to minister to the celebration of all religious rites.

Two conditions of the Crown-Prince—(1) birth, (2) personal merit; he must be able to discharge the duties.

[15]:

putrīkṛtaṃ [putrīkṛta]—Neither a son nor one who is legally adopted as son; but one who, though not a son, is treated as such.

Eight persons are enumerated from among whom the Crown-Prince is to be selected. If there is an uncle (father’s brother) who is younger than the reigning king he should be appointed to fill that post. In his absence the next choice is his own younger brother. But if the king happens to have no younger brother, his own elder brother’s son is to be Crown-Prince. It is only when these three have failed that the claims of his own son come up for consideration. The claims of the adopted child for Crown-Princeship are inferior to those of the person who has been treated almost as a son. Then comes the grandson through daughter and lastly the nephew through sister.

[16]:

manasā—The king should not think of oppressing and molesting them. Of course the reason is clear. Mild treatment should be dealt out to those who are high by birth and are likely to create factions.

[17]:

It is one of the first duties of rulers to study the comforts of those persons who belong to the royal family and have ‘blue blood’ in their veins and who have interests in the state and its affairs. Persons who are entitled to be Crown-Princes demand special care of the reigning king. He should keep constant and careful watch over them, and while himself impartial, should try to uproot any disloyal or jealous feelings out of their minds.

[18]:

Members of the royal family are dangerous like lion-cubs. Great caution and diplomacy are required of the ruler in dealing with them. Woe unto the state and king where they are not watched and governed very carefully; for avarice, love of power and ambition will provoke hostilities and lead to anarchy and disorder

[19]:

Like elephants run riot the men of royal blood are likely to create havoc in the state. History bears ample testimony to the character of members of royal family described in the last five lines. Quarrel between brother and brother, uncle and nephew, family history—so long as man is man. The disadvantages of hereditary monarchy were ever present before the mind’s eye of the Hindu political theorists. They did not live in the ‘golden age’ of peace and harmony but saw the same ‘state of nature,’ the same strife and discord that has existed through the ages, and that exists to-day. Hence the very elaborate rules about the treatment of and dealings with men belonging to the royal household which the king should make it a point to study punctiliously. The discussion which is rather of a moral and domestic character has therefore an important place in political treatises also nd is certainly relevant in Śukranīti which is a treatise on morals social, economic well as political.

[20]:

sma—Sign of the past tense but quite out of place here.

[21]:

sannikarṣa—Proximity (to himself). This is the pre-condition for good management. Able servants are to be appointed who are adepts in the arts of diplomacy. In fact there should be a regular organisation to study the minds of these members of the royal family.

[22]:

Here is a course of instruction for children of the royal household. The education is to be at once physical, intellectual, moral, military as well as political.

dhanurveda and śauryayuddha—The two refer perhaps to the theoretical and applied branches of military education. The former indicates proficiency in the science of Archery, i.e., military tactics and implements generally, while the latter refers to actual field work,, parades, mock fights, assault-at-arms, etc,, practices that call forth martial enthusiasm and develop the warlike aptitudes.

añjasaḥ [añjas]—Straight and upright in morals.

The children must not be allowed to grow uncared for, they are to be brought up through a regular and systematic course of education under the direction of state officials.

[23]:

In II.43-46 Śukrācārya has described the system of education. Here he gives an account of the physical environment and surroundings amidst which he is to be brought up, the comforts and decencies of material life that should be offered to him for enjoyment. Good and decent living is not without its advantages in endowing the man with a cheerful disposition, optimistic outlook and hopeful visions, characteristics that are highly requited of a man who has to deal with multifarious and complex interests in life. Wealth is a blessing in so far as the high standard of life which it makes possible considerably acts upon the character and tendencies of the man.

yauvarājyārha—They are to be fit for thia office not only by birth, intellectual and military training, etc., but also by ideas, manners and sentiments which are to be royal. Their impulses are to be generous, notions about the world and its affairs favourable. And all this is impossible unless the associations in which they are born and bred are really beautiful, opulent and magnificent.

[24]:

avinīti—untrained, Here is described the effect of not properly educating royal children.

[25]:

sudurvṛtta—Whose vṛtta or character or ways of living are very evil.

parityāga etc.—It is dangerous to play with fire. So the handling of even bad children requires careful thought.

kliśyamāna—troubled, oppressed

parān—Others, i.e., enemies. The enemies’ ranks are likely to be swelled by the access of the ill-treated child.

[26]:

Wicked persons are to be set right through wicked characters.

vyasana—A generic name for vices and passions.

vyasanāśrayaiḥ [vyasana-āśraya]—By those who take to vicious ways.

udvṛtta—Unrestrained, ill-behaved.

[27]:

dāyāda—Those who receive shares of or participate in the states, i.e., kith and kin of the king.

dāya—that which can be inherited, property, estates, etc.

Wicked relatives are to be crushed by hook or by crook.

These lines continue the idea suggested in II.34-40 about the treatment of persons of royal blood.

[28]:

ato'nyathā—i.e.,—If the wicked relatives are not struck down immediately they begin to rise, the interests of the state will be jeopardised.

[29]:

Having described the careful and cautious dealings of kings with their kith and kin Śukrācārya takes the other side of the shield and prescribes the proper behaviour of dāyādas towards their ruler. Of course unless these people are well behaved they are sure to forfeit their claims.

paraiḥ—Excellent.

toṣayeyuḥ—Satisfy and please, not necessarily flatter. Their, records of work as well as habits of life must be approved of by the ruler. They should thus deserve the honour and dignity bestowed on them as members of the royal family.

jīvitādapi—Their lives also may be insecure if they do not care to conform to the standard of faithfulness and devotion expected of them as participant dāyāda in the royal estates.

[30]:

sāpiṇḍya—Sāpiṇḍa is a Hindu legal term denoting “a kinsman, especially one connected by the offering of the funeral cake to either or all of the manes of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, and their wives respectively, as sprung from them in directly collateral lines; the relationship stops with every fourth person, as the fifth cannot perform the offering of a cake to the father even of the deceased.”

The following are enumerated as Sapiṇḍas:—“the son, the Son’s son, and son’s grandson; widow, daughter, and daughter’s son; the father, the mother, the brother, brother’s son, and brother’s grandson; father’s daughter’s son; father’s brother’s son and grandson; paternal grandfather’s daughter’s son; paternal grandfather paternal grandmother; paternal grandfather’s brother; brother’s son and grandson; and lastly, the great grandfather’s daughter’s son.”—Wilson’s Dictionary.

sāpiṇḍya—The condition of having sāpiṇḍa, i.e., one or other of the relative mentioned above. The idea here is that those persons who cannot refer to one or other of such kinsfolk and indicate their family illations should by no means be regarded as one’s own children. Such persons are practically speaking ‘tribeless, clanless’ foundings and can never appreciate the normal filial feeling and paternal sentiments of ordinary human beings.

Three classes of men should not be considered as one’s own children—(1) those who belong to no family and cannot refer to any of their own relatives; (2) those who are known to be born of other families; (3) those who have been legally adopted.

svasuta—i.e., one’s own offspring. The advice here given is expressed in the well known phrase ‘Blood is thicker than water.’ Any body and every body cannot be successfully received as members of one’s own family, tied to it by natural affections and thoroughly identified with its interests.

[31]:

dhanikaṃ [dhanika]—It is self-interest that impels men to be adopted children to somebody. They try to get themselves adopted by a man whom they find to be wealthy.

This line supplies the reason why adopted sons are never to be regarded as svasuta.

[32]:

Śukrācārya has been discussing the question of adoption. Here are described the persons from among whom the selection is to be made. He is of opinion that off springs of the same dynasty should be preferred to those who are mere vagabonds.

kanyā—Here are advanced some of the general claims of the daughter which according to Śukraniti are not at all inferior to those of the son. The daughter participates as much in the flesh and blood of the parents as the son. Hence the offsprings of girl should not be considered in any way inferior to those of the male issues Rights of women are thus ably advocated.

aṅgādaṅgād [aṅgādaṅga]—Limb by limb, i.e., each portion of the body of the daughter (and the son) is derived from the limbs of the progenitor.

[33]:

That the daughter or woman generally is not to be despised is sufficiently indicated, according to Śukrācārya, by the regulation that the male issue of the daughter is as much entitled to the funeral rites as the son himself.

piṇḍa—An oblation to deceased ancestors, as a ball or lump of rice mixed up with milk, curds, flowers, &c., offered to the manes by nearest surviving relations,

[34]:

The adoption is not for personal satisfaction but for the proper administration of the interests of the state.

[35]:

The king’s wealth is sacred and must not be misspent. Here is a sly it at the practice of adopting sons and spending money over them, The next two lines make it more clear.

[36]:

If it is possible for a man to adopt into one’s family men born outside it is to be expected that he should spend some money, at any rate on sacrifices and in charities So that the poorer classes as well as priests may derive some share of royal wealth.

A conflict between national interests and the interests of the adopted child is brought out here. That the right of adoption is to a certain extent prejudicial to the collective weal of the people at large was conceived by philosophers of the Hindu World. Here is a mild protest against the custom.

dāna—(Charity, gifts, &c.) and yajana (sacrifices, worship &c.) are the two items which are interfered with by expenditure over adopted sons. The money which is meant for prajāpālana (maintenance of subjects, I.67) e.g., through charities and sacrificial festivals is spent on men who come into the royal family not even by th accident of birth but by a legal fiction, perhaps by his whim.

[37]:

Newly installed Crown-princes are likely to be insolent, rude and haughty like upstarts. And persons likely to bear most the brunt of their affront have been divided here into three classes—

(1) members of their own family, relatives and kinsfolk;
(2) rājavallabha—friends and favourites of the king, e.g., those who also might be similarly installed in case of his absence, and hence who are likely to be jealous rivals;
(3) mahājanān [mahājana]—the public at large, the subjects generally It is very desirable that the Crown-prince should be able to establish an empire over the hearts of the people.

mahājana—Does not mean a great or illustrious man but a collective people.

avamanyet—Look down upon.

svasampattimada—Vanity due to the newly acquired position and wealth as Crown-prince.

[38]:

The Crown-prince has been advised to behave well with all persons. But here he is asked to make a difference with regard to one point, viz., nābhipradarśanaṃ [nābhi-pradarśana], i.e., seeing the king (nābhi).

maṣayanti—not bear or tolerate, i.e., the prince should not allow the outsider to appear before the king. He should be judicious enough io make the choice as to who should be presented and who not.

[39]:

vṛddhi—Increase, affluence, prosperity.

[40]:

The common traditional stories about Paraśurāma and Rāma are here pressed into service to prove the authority of father and the efficacy of obedience to father. Sons who obey their fathers are successful in life.

[41]:

The command of such persons must be respected.

[42]:

ādhikyaṃ [ādhikya]—Difference in prosperity. It is always a bad policy to make a display of one’s strength before those who have reasons to be jealous. Such an injudicious display is positively mischievous, it is tantamount to ill-treating and insulting them and exciting their worst passions.

bhāgārha—Those who deserve a share.

The advice given here is very sound in the administration of domestic and other social affairs. And as hereditary monarchy has more or less the characteristics of a domestic household, being essentially patriarchal in nature, the rules of dealings with kith and kin are not out of place in political treatises.

[43]:

Instances of obedient and devoted sons have been recorded in II.77-8 Here are given instances of failure through disobedience.

[44]:

manāk—Once.

viṣīdati——Gets displeased.

[45]:

It is not unlikely that the father may be misled by Cāra i.e., informers, spies, etc., and Sūcakas i.e., flatterers, detractors, etc. In that case it would be the duty of the son to keep him to the right path. But then he should not do it in an ostentatious and haughty fashion.

He should study his humour (prakṛti) and explain to him in a manner that is adapted to it (anumataṃ [anumata]). So that his attempt may not fall flat. And the advice is to be given in secret places.

prakṛtyanumataṃ kṛtvā—In a manner that is acceptable to him.

[46]:

anudinam—Day after day, i.e., every morning he should relate what he did during the day previous.

[47]:

His work is to have two-fold effect—(1) the Family or House must not lose its integrity—there must be avigetha [?]; (2) The people must be happy.

[48]:

The supremacy is to be established not only by satva or physical vigour but by moral strength of sacrifice also.

[49]:

samāsataḥ [samāsatas]—Briefly, synoptically.

[50]:

sahavāsa—Of course a man is known by the company he keeps.

parīkṣayet—Anybody and everybody is not to be appointed to any post. All candidates must pass through the process of examination and selection. The selected candidate must be able to satisfy the master in the particular points enumerated.

[51]:

Considerations of birth and family are important no doubt, but these are not the sole points to be brought out in selecting persons for public offices.

[52]:

That is, in purely social functions, race, caste, birth, etc., have to be most seriously considered. But when the question is of appointment to political offices these considerations should weigh very little to the master or officer in charge.

nityaṃ [nitya]—Always, i.e., compulsory.

Śukrâchâryya makes a distinction between spheres of human activity and remarks that caste considerations apply not to all departments of human life but only to certain defined aspects, e.g., marriage, dining, etc. Hence much of the so-called vices of caste system is the idle product of men’s imagination. The criticism that it is based on injustice cannotestand. <

[53]:

Such persons are likely to be conscientious and their discharge of duties strictly rigid.

abhijanaḥ [abhijana]—(1) Family; (2) Fame. Here the latter, for otherwise, abhijanavān would be repetition of sukula, i.e., well connected.

A few more characteristics of good servants are enumerated below.

[54]:

The good officer is be who is impartial and does not fear to expose the faults and vices of even near relatives, and who does not pander to the evil tastes and habits of the master but is firm and strong (in dissuading him from them).

darśakaḥ [darśaka]—observer, watcher, scrutiniser.

āgaskāriṇaṃ [āgaskārin]—Who commits offence, acts against the interests.

āgas—Fault, crime.

atadrūpa—Not like him.

tadrūpa—i.e., not a mere echo of the master, not a sycophant but has his own individuality. The son’s activities may go against the interests of the master, the father’s activities also may point the same way. Even the master himself may adopt suicidal measures. In these cases it is only the good servant who can intervene and by boldly asserting his individuality rescue the state from ruin and calamity.

subodhaka—One who can well understand situations,

[55]:

ākṣeptā [ākṣeptṛ]—One who protests.

giraṃ [gir]—Word.

nyūna—Defects

[56]:

He follows the principle ‘Love me, love my dog.’

[57]:

tadvadbuddhi—i.e., one who thinks in (or whose thought is of) the same manner as the master himself. He is thoroughly identified with his master’s interests and looks upon as his concerns as his own.

[58]:

adhikāraṃ [adhikāra]—Rights, jurisdiction. The good officer is not interfering, does not unduly hope for other’s privileges.

[59]:

dhārakaṃ [dhāraka]—He puts on the insignia, badges, &c., indicating his rank and function and is ever ready to serve his master.

[60]:

bhṛti—Salary. One of the characteristics of good officers is frugality and moderation in expenditure.

Persons who are spendthrifts and extravagant in their private capacity are likely to bring disasters upon the state by injudicious administration of public interests. Hence an individual’s extravagance is not only a personal foible but has also a serious significance in political and social affairs. The man, therefore, who spends within his means is good not only as a private citizen but is also an acquisition to the state.

[61]:

Having described some of the characteristics of the good officers, Śukrācārya is going to mention a few marks by which bad servants are to be known. Of course quite the opposite attributes will be predicated of them,

[62]:

hīnabhṛtikā—Those whose salaries are low. Low paid officers are never to be trusted with responsible work and are not expected to render faithful service.

Of course, the men described in these lines are good for nothing.

[63]:

abhyasūyakāḥ [abhyasūyaka]—Malicious, envious.

ārta—Diseased.

vyasaninaḥ [vyasanin]—Those who are addicted to vices, e. hunting.

devinaḥ [devin]—Gamblers—those who play at dice.

anubandhinaḥ [anubandhin]—Those who continue.

prakarṣitā—i.e., censured for neglects of duty.

[64]:

purodhā—Priest.

[65]:

saciva, mantrī, āmātya and sumantraka are different ministers with different function.

pradhāna—Secretary, superintendent, premier.
saciva—Commander, War Minister.
mantrī—Councillor, diplomatist.
sumantraka—Finance Minister,
amātya—Ordinary Minister.
prakṛtayaḥ [prakṛti]—Advisers, requisites of regal administration. Departments of Executive Government.
prāḍvivākaḥ [prāḍvivāka]—One who asks (prāṭ [prāś?]) well as decides ; The Justice.

[66]:

That is, the income of is one-tenth greater than that of Pratinidhi. That of Pratinidhi one-tenth greater than that of Pradhāna, and so on,

[67]:

The eight requisites are Sumantra, Scholar, Minister, Pradhāna, Saciva, Amātya, Justice, and Viceroy,

[68]:

bhṛtisamāḥ [bhṛtisama]—Those whose incomes are equal. There are two systems of political organisation. According to the first the incomes vary in a certain proportion, there is a gradation of salary. According to the second there is equality of income,

[69]:

In the second list dūta has no place. But the spy is too important an office-bearer to be ignored. Hence according to the second theory he is retained as the follower or anuga of the main departments,

iṅgita—The emotions and feelings of the mind,

ākāra—Expressions or manifestations of feeling through gesticulations, physical gestures,

tatva—Science, here the art of studying the mind and its external manifestations. It goes without saying that the spy must be an adept in this art.

The II.145-146 introduce parenthetically, as it were, the new conception of political departments, and mention it here only as a piece of information, Śukrācārya does not accept it himself.

[70]:

pūrvaśreṣṭhāḥ [pūrvaśreṣṭha]—The former among whom was superior to the latter.
Having described the salary, precedence and social as well as political status of the 10 classes of administrative authorities, Śukrācārya goes on to describe the functions and qualifications of each.

 

[71]:

The enumeration of the attributes of a priest gives some idea of the all-round culture he is to have. Not a mere knowledge of the technique of sacrificial rites and ceremonies, but a sound liberal education is expected of him. That he should have the moral qualities of moderation, abstemiousness and self-control goes without saying. He must also be smart and active karmatatpara.

What is of special significance in the list is the mention of the several branches of learning he should master:

(1) The Three Vedas technically known as trayī.

(2) The six Vedāṅgas sciences which introduce learners to the study of the Vedas, without which no one can understand and appreciate the master sciences. These are known as (a) śikṣā—The Science of pronunciation and articulation; (b) kalpa—The detail of religious ceremonies; (c) vyākaraṇa—Grammar; (d) chandaḥ [chandas]—Prosody; (e) jyotiṣa—Astronomy; (f) nirukta—Explanation of difficult or obscure words and phrases that occur in the Vedas.

(3) The military science with all its branches; dhanurveda or the Science of archery is a generic name for the Science governing all material exploits;

(4) The Science of religious interests of men,

(5) Nīti Śāstra—Science of social, economic, and political morals.

(6) The art of warfare. Practical training is here implied, as theoretical knowledge of warlike feats is suggested by dhanurvedavid.

Thus apart from the moral and physical training the system of education for priests includes within intellectual culture a training in Economics, Theology, Sociology and Military Science.

vyūha—Arrays of soldiers, their grouping and management on fields.

[72]:

nirodhana—Control, discipline, pressure.

A good minister is he whom (whose regulations) the king fears.

The polity described in Śukranīti is formally despotic; but it recognises only such ministers as ideal as are not merely ‘king’s friends’ or ‘king’s men’ working like his private secretaries or confidential clerks, but have an individuality and independence of character by which they can control the whims and caprices of the monarch and systematically govern the course of the state’s action.

[73]:

Independence of ministers is the criterion of national well-being. Men who dare not raise their voice against the king have no place in the councils of states but should be retained as ornamental figureheads and ‘dignified parts’ of the constitution. They do not deserve any effective control over statecraft and should be humoured by grants of titles, honours and distinctions.

They are no better than women who are satisfied with trinkets and dainties.

[74]:

nṛpatvaṃ [nṛpatva]—The function of a king, rule, administration, government.

Some other general tests of good ministers are mentioned here. They must be able to display their ability and justify their existence by adding to the state’s resources, territory, influence or prestige.

[75]:

The several ministers of the king who are heads of several departments are mentioned here. The Hindu technical terms and English equivalents are given below:

purodhā—Priest.
pratinidhi—Viceroy.
pradhāna—Superintendent, Chief Secretary.
saciva—War Secretary.
mantrī—Diplomatist, Foreign Secretary,
paṇḍita—Learned advisor.
prāḍvivāk [prāḍvivāka]—Chief Justice.
amātya—Land Revenue Officer.
sumantra—Finance Minister.
dytūta—Ambassador.

The differentiation of the Executive into so many departments, each with its own functions and own chief, indicates a highly organised political fabric. The statement of qualifications required of each minister is also the product of a deep insight into the functions of the state. The picture thus presented is not one of a simple primitive political life in which the ‘man in the street’ is fit to be a judge, a warrior and a ruler by turn, but one of a complex organization which requires specialized functionaries for the efficient discharge of its functions and hence demands of each a specialized training as Judge, Commander, Financier, &c.

I.170. The Mantri or Foreign Secretary must be proficient in Nīti, i.e., the art of life (or the rules for the good management of practical affairs). He must therefore know what to do under what circumstances. This is what is meant modern times by ‘expediency.’

I.171. The Prāḍvivāka or Chief Justice must be proficient in three Sciences—that which deals with men (Sociology or History), that which treats of the rules laid down by sages and Ṛṣis in Śāstras (Theology, &c.) and that which treats of manners, customs, and morals handed down from generation to generation (Morality or Ethics). All the Sciences enumerated here are human and social; and the Judge has to qualify himself specially iu* these for he has always to deal mainly with men and manners.

I.172. deśa—Lands, lekha—writings or records. Perhaps a knowledge of tenures and rights is implied here, The Amātya is thus a Cadastral Settlement or Survey Minister.

[76]:

iṅgita—inward feelings. The ambassador must be able to study the mind’s thoughts.

ākāra—facial expressions or outward manifestations of sentiments through the physical organs e.g., in speech, gesticulations, movements of limbs, &c.,

ceṣṭā—activity, enterprise. The ambassador must also keep ne vs of the movements of the persona he studies.

He must have a retentive memory for he may have to communicate many things orally which it might be inexpedient to transmit in black and white. It is easy to understand why he should be a master of Geography and History (deśa and kāla, i.e., space and time) and also a good speaker. For unless be is well grounded in the actual conditions of time and place and the special characteristics of the relations between persons he has to deal with he is likely to misunderstand or misrepresent facts and thus bungle with the stale s affairs.

[77]:

The Vice-regent is not merely to ditto the king at every step but must be bold enough to forbid bad courses of action, and recommend what appears to be good at the proper time.

[78]:

He is something like a general supervisor over all the affairs of the state and a controller of office systems.

kāryajāta—Amount of work.

[79]:

saṃgha—Groups

sādyaska—New.

agnicūrṇa—Gunpowder.

sambhāra—Necessaries and contingencies of war.

[80]:

sāma, etc.—The four policies mentioned here are the orthodox methods of dealin with international affairs in Hindu treatises on Politics. The Mantri is thus the Foreign Secretary.

saṃcintya—Considering or studying.

niścitya—Determining or deciding.

[81]:

The Judicial procedure is fully described here. (1) The Chief Justice is not to act alone but is to be helped by sabhya. He is to be sasabhya. (2) the judgment is to be public for he is to be sabhāsthita (seated in the assembly), (3) The examination is to be conducted in as many ways as possible so that the whole truth may be discovered. Even divya-saṃsādhana i.e., mystical or occult processes have to be resorted to in order to discover the proper method of attacking a problem. (4) The sentence is to be delivered after careful weighing of evidence. All the methods of truth investigation known in Hindu Logic have to be used. The lokaśāstra or manners, morals and customs of the folk that have been handed down from generations must also be investigated. For otherwise the judgement might be correct in theory but wrong in practice, in fact, quite out of place.

[82]:

Various classes of rules and regulations of life are here enumerated. There cannot be a uniform standard of moral conduct—it is implied. It must vary according to place, time, and circumstances.

lokaśāstra-viruddha—possibility of a Pandit being opposed to the manners and customs of the people is thus indicated.

It is the function of the Pandit to study the manners and customs and always to be in touch with the latest thoughts and opinions of the people, i.e., to grow with the world.

Śukrācārya is not an advocate of fixed codes of morality and religion that must be absolutely respected at all times and places and under any circumstances whatever, but recognises the relativity of religious and moral sentiments and practices to the social and other conditions of the world.

[83]:

The sumantra or Finance Minister has to study the Budget and Revenues and prepare the schedule of Credits and Debits, Assets and liabilities of the State. He has, in fact, to frame what is called the Balance-sheet.

[84]:

The Financial affairs are distributed between the sumantra who is in charge of the Budget and the amātya who is in ebarge of Land settlement and records.

The following sources of revenue are mentioned

(1) bhāga—Rent from land.
(2) śulka—Duties or taxes.
(3) daṇḍa—Fines.
(4) akṛṣṭapacyā—i.e., what is received without cultivation or care, nature’s contribution.
(5) araṇyasambhava—Income from forests.
(6) ākara—Mineral wealth.
(7) nidhiprāpta—Deposits as in a bank.
(8) asvāmika—Unowned. All unclaimed property belongs to the stale,
(9) taskarāhṛta—Got back from thieves.

[85]:

Each officer is thus to be made competent for all functions of the state through taking part in each for certain periods.

parivarddha—The system of training up officers by rotation. But it is difficult to see how the priestly function can be discharged by the others.

[86]:

samabala—Of equal authority. Is the theory of checks and balances implied here?

[87]:

Here are rules for the management of each adhikāra or jurisdiction, i.e., departments.

darśaka—Inspectors, overseers

hāyana—Year. The term of office or tenure of appointment is for 3, 5, 7, or 10 years according to kāryakauśalya, qualifications.

[88]:

Śukrācārya warns the king against bestowal of permanent offices. Appointments to posts should be, according to him, during good behaviour. If the pride of position bewilders the officer and he proves unworthy of the responsibility he should be dismissed. Work is the sole test and recommendation for office.

[89]:

When somebody is found to be unworthy of the work entrusted to him others are to be appointed. In such a case the claims of tat padānugata, i.e., those who follow in his heels (e.g., subordinates and apprentices, should be considered. And these should be appointed on salary (varttane).

[90]:

These lines describe a regular system of translation and promotion through qualification and aptitude for successively higher posts leading ultimately to the immediate advisers and councillors of the king, The officer is to begin at the lowest rung of the administrative ladder, but by displaying hie ability in the lower grades, may be lifted up to the post of highest responsibility.

All these rules about the training of officers, tenure of service, organisation of the office, the filling up of vacancies, rotation and gradual promotion are the outcome of a highly developed political machinery that would be required in a vast country-state or an empire. Śukranīti is adapted to the requirements not of village-commonwealths or city-states but extensive national organisations.

anukrameṇa—In succession. The amount of work to be done and the number and variety of interests to be administered must be very large in order to allow for the scientific division of labour and the methods of scientific specialisation and transfer prescribed in these lines.

[91]:

adhikāra—Office, jurisdiction. The proportion of inspectors to actual workers is to be determined scientifically according to the nature of the interests to be administered.

[92]:

pṛthak—Each of these things is to be in charge of a separate officer. But it is difficult to see how and why some of these responsibilities can be parted from each other, e.g., What is the good of having separate officers for gold, jewels and silver? This is specialisation carried too far. Or perhaps all these things are to go together, as implied in II.303-4.

[93]:

The treasurer, the head of the granary and kitchen-superintendant are. separate officers as they should be.

The granary is a very important feature of Hindu economic and social life

[94]:

devatuṣṭipati—A separate officer is required for administering the institutions for the satisfaction of gods, e.g., temples, Dharmaśālās, which are likely to be too many in Hindu society.

[95]:

Some special charges on the state are those men who are morally or intellectually deserving of help.

They are to be respected by grants of scholarship (bhṛtyā), gifts of laud or other things (dāna) and titles of honour or distinction (māna).

In enumerating the intellectual qualifications entitling a man to such honours and aids Śukrācārya mentions perhaps all the varieties of prevalent in his time—

(1) śruti—The Vedas;
(2) smṛti
(3) purāṇa;
(4) śāstra
(5) daiva—Divination (astrology).
(6) mantra—Hymns and incantations, e.g., those of the Atharva-Veda which are efficacious in many social troubles;
(7) āyurveda—The science and art of medicine;
(8) karmakāṇḍa,—The religious rites and usages—sacrifices and offerings to gods;
(9) tantra.

The enumeration of these branches of learning in this connexion indicates a comparatively modern stage of socio political life in two ways In the first place, the fact that even karmakāṇḍa, mantra and tantra entitle the persons to distinctions and aids of the state equally as the Śrutis is an index to the great liberalisation of intellect that must have been prevalent at the time. In the second place the branches of learning must have been many and diversified for long in order that there might be specialists in each, It is doubtful if Tantras and men adept in the rites prescribed therein could be noticed in Pre-Buddhistic age, say the of Śrutis.

[96]:

This is the sanction for stipends and honorariums to Scholars and learned men.

The above lines suggest a sort of literary pensions granted to qualified men to enable them to devote their whole time and energy to the pursuit of their special investigations. Here is a plea for the adoption of the policy of Protection for fostering the national literature, arts and sciences. A state without men of letters is insignificant and unimportant. Hence one of the functions of the state is the direct promotion and encouragement of culture among the people

[97]:

bahusādhyāni [bahusādhya]—Which have many ends, hence highly complicated state functions

[98]:

Śukrācārya has been dilating on the skill and discrimination required of the master for the selection of proper men for tasks for which they are fit. These two lines contain the general truth that there is nothing in the world that is absolutely useless. Everything has its own use.—The greatest difficulty is to find out the man who can make proper use of these things in the universe, create mantras by connecting the letters of the alphabet, discover medicines by finding out the relation of plants with human bodies.

The kernel of truth that Śukranīti establishes for the success of organisations, and what all responsible men should regard as the first principle is the maxim, ‘Give each man his proper work.’

jojaka [yojaka?]—the combiner, connecter, the man who can discover the relations existing between bodies, and hence the effects of various sets of juxtapositions.

[99]:

Śukrācārya’s statement of qualifications for the superintendents of horses and elephants contains, as it should, a knowledge of practical zoology and veterinary science. And as the two animals differ in many respects both as regards physique, movements and habits, it is easy to see why the two offices should be kept separate. A good groom is not likely to be a good tender of elephants.

[100]:

The master of chariots must have not only all the qualifications of keepers of horses, but the additional merits of discriminating the qualities of wood and other materials used in the building of chariot so that be might be confident of the strength of his vehicle; and he must also be skilled in the mechanical movements required for manipulating it.

samāpatat—Destroyer of the mark fixed for the attacking missiles.

[101]:

palyāṇa—Saddle.

[102]:

nati—Discipline, rules of etiquette. The Military Department must follow these rules and ceremonials very punctiliously. Hence only well disciplined men can be taken into the army.

L. 279—There is no caste in and for military organisations. The army may be recruited from any caste.

[103]:

Ranks of the army:—
pattipāla—Head of 5 or 6 infantry.
gaulmika—Head of 30 infantry.
śatānīka—Head of 100 infantry.
anuśatika—Head of 100 infantry.
sāhasrika—Head of 1.000 infantry.
āyutika—Head of 10.000 infantry.

[104]:

Parades were held twice every day under the supervision of the head of 100 soldiers.

[105]:

The Senānī is thus like Anuśatika an assistant to Śatānīka. He is in charge of the commissariat, general health and comfort of the troops under the Śatānīka something like a civil attendant of the troops.

[106]:

lekhaka—The officer in charge of all facts and figures. He can supply statistics and news about the Military Department.

[107]:

ārāmādhipati—to Superintendents of Botanical Gardens of modern times.

[108]:

The qualifications described here are those of the Civil Engineer. In modem times also the officer in charge of Public Works must be a Civil Engineer.

[109]:

sambhāra—Commodities.

This officer is something like a butler who ministers to the daily wants of the house-hold and keeps things in order.

[110]:

The principle of Taxation is suggested by the art of the gardener who deprives the trees of their products bub not of their life. Taxation is a painful necessity but must not be heavy enough to kill the people.

[111]:

The lekhaka must be proficient in Mathematics, History, Geography and Language.

[112]:

Both as regards śulka (i.e., duties or taxes on goods) and bhāga (revenue from land) the principle of collection is the same—viz., not to destory the productive capacity altogether.

[113]:

sagīdi [sargādi?]—5 aspects or characteristics of Purāṇās.
(1) sarga (Creation).
(2) pratisarga (Destruction),
(3) vaṃśa Dynasties.
(4) manvantara (Epochs).
(5) vaṃśānucarita (Deeds of dynasties).
The Purāṇas treat of these 5 topics.

[114]:

[???]—Skilled in the proper use of words.

[115]:

These men are masters of high class etiquette.

[116]:

Here follows an enumeration of the various crafts and industries that according to Śukrācārya, should be rightly encouraged. Here is, in short, a picture of the socioeconomic life of tbe age of Śukranīti.

[117]:

The military industry is described in these 3 lines.

[118]:

Industries connected with wood, stones, metals and minerals are enumerated here.

[119]:

The humbler industries are enumerated here.

śaulvika [śaulbika]—Coppersmith.

takṣāṇa [takṣaṇa] / takṣiṇaḥ [takṣin]—Carpenter.

[120]:

Tailor.

[121]:

goṣṭhī—Club; associations, here discussions, &c.

[122]:

This is to be the harden of remarks made to the king by visiters.

[123]:

This is a warning against exaggeration. The king should hear what might encourage him but not what is downright flattery

[124]:

Thus the praise that this king is better than many kings is vague and cannot detract from the proper reputation of any specified ruler.

[125]:

The two lines teach greatfulness to hosts and kings.

[126]:

Both king and servant are thieves in their own ways, by their very functions. So that taking of life and of wealth is legitimate in the two cases.

anyathā, etc.—Deviation from these would lead to tyranny and robbery.

Thus if the king kills men in ordinary times he becomes an arbitrary ruler who is soon likely to be overthrown. And if the servants break open the coffers of the state they will be treated as robbers and will have to rot in the jail.

[127]:

Expulsion of the king recommended when he is an enemy of the state.

[128]:

Here is an abstract conception worthy of the most recent times. The royal seal is the real king, not the person.

[129]:

Each department to furnish daily, monthly, yearly,m quinquennial reports, &c.

[130]:

sādhyārtha—Matters in dispute, the suit.

avadhāraṇa—Decision, judgment.

[131]:

bhogapatra—Gifts.

karadīkṛta—Grants of tribute.

upāyanīkṛta—Charters of privileges

upāyana—Present.

[132]:

[???]—Which cannot be destroyed.

[???]—Which cannot be brought back.

[133]:

sadālekhya—Receipt for a pawn in lieu of certain things placed under certain conditions as to time, use, etc

[134]:

melayitvā——Joint-stock companies formed by the combinations of shares svadhanāṃśa for certain vyavahāra (commercial transactions).

sādhakāḥ [sādhaka]—Individual shareholders who want to co-operate and form a company.

[135]:

The various kinds of business and legal documents enumerated in these lines:
(1) jayapatra—Sentence or judgment.
(2) ājñāpatra—Order
(3) prajñāpanapatra—Instructions to priests, etc.
(4) śāsanapatra—Public Notification.
(5) prasādapatra—Gifts.
(6) bhogapatra—Enjoyment, usufruct.
(7) bhāgapatra—Partition.
(8) dānapatra—Gifts.
(9) krayapatra—Sale or Purchase.
(10) sādipatra—Security or pawn.
(11) ratyalekhaka [satyalekhaka?]—As explained above.
(12) saṃvitapatra [saṃvitpatra?]—Treaty.
(13) ṛṇapatra [ṛṇalekhya?]—Loan.
(14) [???]—Purification.
(15) [???]—Combined action for commercial purpose

[136]:

Besides the 15 classes of vṛttalekhya mentioned above some others have been enumerated in II.631-41. The first may be described as official, business or legal. The others which are of a private nature are:

(1) kṣemapatra;
(2) bhāṣāpatra;

[137]:

vyāpya—Small.

vyāpaka—Many.

[138]:

Three characteristics of
(1) Commodities,
(2) Possession,
(3) Period of realisation.

[139]:

‘Consumption,’ as the modem economic category is may be direct as well as indirect. It may be for future production and involve only an exchange of goods.

[140]:

In modern public Finance also debts are shown on the Assets side.

[141]:

Both the last two species of receipts have to be paid back. But there is an interest in one case while the other is gratuitous or friendly help.

[142]:

sāhajika—Naturally accruing, normal.

adhika—Increase (profits) from business,

[143]:

The adhika class would be what is known as quasi-economic receipts of states īn modern times i.e., revenues accruing not from the normal functions of the state as a political organisation, but from those of the state as business concern, owner of property, capitalist, &c.

[144]:

pārthiva—Pertaining to the earth, laud, soils,

[145]:

bhāṭaka—Wages, price paid for the use öf any thing.

The schedule of income as described in the above hues is given below:—

I. niścitānyasvāmikaṃ [niścitānya-svāmika]—Belonging to Others.
(1) aupanidhya—Pawn placed by others as deposit.
(2) yācitaka—Begged, ornaments, &c.
(3) auttamarṇika—Loan.

II. ajñāta-svāmika—Whose owners are unknown, e.g., things picked up in streets, which escheat to the state.

III.—One’s own property:—
(1) sāhajika—Normal, accruing to the stale as a political organisation:
(a) pārthiva—Terrestrial—coming from the rigid of sovereignty over lands, livers, seas, lakes, tanks, wells, &c.
(b) itara—Non-terrestrial—taxes, duties, fines, presents, loyalties, puces.
(2) adhika—Increase—quasi-economic or semi-private receipts—(i) Profits, (ii) Interest, (iii) Fees, (iv) Rewards, (v) Salary, (vi) Booty.
(a) pārthiva—Accruing from dealings in lands, waters, &c.
(b) itara—Income from dealings in taxes, fines, &c.

[146]:

In determining the value or price of a commodity two points are to be noticed—

(1) sulabhāsulabha—Ease or difficulty of attainment—referring to the cost of production determining the supply,

(2) aguṇatāguṇasaṃśreya [aguṇatvaguṇasaṃśraya]—Its utility or power of satisfying wants, etc. because of its properties—referring to the demand for it determined by its uses.

[147]:

Each document is thus to contain the signatures and seals all the ten Prakṛtis or advisers of the king as well as of the king himself and the Crown-Prince. So that everybody is accountable for the deed.

[148]:

[see table]

10 guñja	... ... ... ...	1 bhāṣa
10 bhāṣa	... ... ... ...	1 karṣa
10 karṣa	... ... ... ...	1 padārtha
10 padārtha	... ... ... ...	1 prastha
5 prastha	... ... ... ...	1 āḍhaka
8 āḍhaka	... ... ... ...	1 armaṇa
20 armaṇa	... ... ... ...	1 svārikā

 

[149]:

It is one of the first duties of rulers to study the comforts of those persons who belong to the royal family and have ‘blue blood’ in their veins and who have interests in the state and its affairs. Persons who are entitled to be Crown-Princes demand special care of the reigning king. He should keep constant and careful watch over them, and while himself impartial, should try to uproot any disloyal or jealous feelings out of their minds.

[150]:

The equitable rate of wages is that which considers not simply the absolute necessaries of life but recognises the ‘standard of life and comfort’ as implied in the care for family and dependants

[151]:

hīnabhṛtikā—Political and social effects of low wages. In considering the Labour Question and the rate of wages Śukrācārya takes the essentially modern view that low wages is the cause of sundry social and moral evils. And his equitable standard anticipates by centuries the socialistic cries for ‘higher life’ to be lived by the working classes.

Do these economic theories and conceptions of Śukranīti point to the actual economic condition of the age depicted in it? There are other features in the treatise, economic, political and social, which suggest a highly complicated and comparatively modern organisation. It is very likely the Problem of Labour also was acute and Śukrācārya had to face those problems which have tried the financial skill and statesmanlike ability of the greatest ministers of states in the ancient city-republics as well as modern empire-states.

[152]:

The idea of establishing a Provident Fund is unmistakably suggested

[153]:

Here is a solution of the difficulty as to how each adviser could be made to