Warfare and Military System in Vedic Literature
by Rinki Deka | 2023 | 39,711 words
This page relates ‘Religious Beliefs and other Practices related to Warfare’ of the study on Warfare and the Military System of ancient India as gleaned from the Vedic Literature. The purpose of this work is to study the defensive and offensive systems of the Vedic people, including their army divisions, political and administrative systems, use of arms and armours, fortification, ethics and other principles related to warfare; while reflecting the social system and cultural aspects of ancient India.
Religious Beliefs and other Practices related to Warfare
The Āryan people in the Vedic period took interest not only in the battles but also the results of the battles. For that, they practised magic as well as rituals for winning battles. The king was to perform the ritual as and when the need arose. The Kauśikasūtra and Sāyaṇācārya’s commentary on the Atharavedasaṃhitā are the main sources from which one can learn about the procedures of performing the rites and rituals relating to warfare. The Atharvavedapariśiṣṭa also describes some rituals connected to royalty. The rituals coonected to the royalty are generally performed with the offerings to the gods. These rituals are performed at an auspicious time and place. The sacrificer used the right hand to offer oblations except the oblation of Iṅgiḍa oil.[1] The Vedic texts elaborate some sacrifices meant for the royalty to fulfil some specific aspirations such as, the Rājasūya,[2] the Vājapeya,[3] the Aśvamedha,[4] etc. All these are designed to obtain kingship or emperorship. Among these rites, the Rājasūya or inauguration of a king is a complex religious ceremony, which includes amongst other rites in the performance of a number of Soma yāgas of different kinds.
Sāyaṇācārya explains the nature of Rājasūya as follows—
rājā sūyate anujñāyate jagadrakṣaṇavidhau yena karmaṇā tad rājasūyam abhiṣekākhyam idaṃ karma anutiṣṭhatītyarthaḥ //[5]
One who performs the Rājasūya sacrifice, becomes rājā or king and by performing the Vājapeya sacrifice one becomes a samrāt.[6] Rājya is of a lower order and and sāmrājya is of a superior order.[7] Thus, this sacrifice is performed before performing the Vājapeya because of the fact that once Vājapeya is performed, there is no scope for the Rājasūya.The Rājasūya is a ceremony meant for the Kṣatriyas or the military class. The Rājasūya ceremony commences with the rite called Pavitra before the full moon day of Pauṣya.[8] It consists of seven Soma rituals including the Pavitra which is performed twice. It has two animal sacrifices, seven darvīhomas and a hundred and twenty nine iṣṭiyāgas.[9]
By performing the Vājapeya sacrifice, the king gets the title of samrāt.[10] The term vājapeya is explained as drink of strength, vāja means strength and peya means drink. The Vājapeya is called so because the vāja, i.e. the food is mixed with liquor which is to be drunk at the sacrifice.[11] One who performs the Vājapeya sacrifice, becomes the child of Prajāpati and as such becomes immortal.[12] It is mainly a sacrifice of the Brāhmaṇas because as the legend goes that god Bṛhaspati performed it and he was the Brahmā priest of the Vedic gods. A Kṣatriya is also having the right to perform this sacrifice because god Indra had performed it as he was the Kṣatra of the Vedic gods.[13] Therefore, the Vājapeya sacrifice is performed by both Brāhmaṇa and Kṣatriya, but the Vaiśya had no right on it.[14] This rite is performed in the autumn season.[15] The Vājapeya sacrifice consists of seventeen parts[16] such as, seventeen priests, seventeen sacrificial animals, seventeen yūpas, seventeen horses, seventeen chariots and so on. Every priest wears a golden necklaces round his neck.[17] The Vājapeya rite is similar to the Agniṣṭoma rite. In this rite, the performer recites the verses such as śukravatī (Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 4.47.1) and jyotiṣmatī (Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 1.9.2) in the Prātaḥsavana to obtain tejas and brahmavarcas. In the Mādhyandinasavana, the vājavatī (Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 4.27) verses are pronounced to acquire the heaven. Again, the annavatī (Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 10.5.45), gaṇavatī (Atharvaveda-saṃhitā ,19.45.10) and paśuvatī (Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 2.26.3) verses are recited in the Tṛtīyasavana to attain bhūmā.[18]
The Vedic literature mentions a sacrifice called Bṛhaspatisava, which was meant for the Brāhmaṇas. It is a sacrifice similar to the Rājasūya sacrifice. The difference between the two was that the Bṛhaspatisava was meant for the Brāhmaṇas while the Kṣatriyas were alone eligible to perform the Rājasūya. But the Śatapathabrāhmaṇa states that Bṛhaspatisava is the same as the Vājapeya—bṛhaspatisavo vā eṣa yadvājapeyam/[19] The Bṛhaspatisava is so called because, by performing this sacrifice Bṛhaspati, the priest of gods, attained pre-eminence and became the spiritual lord. He who performs the Vājapeya is to perform the Bṛhaspatisava for a fortnight before and after the Vājapeya.[20] The Bṛhaspatisava is a kind of Ekāha Soma sacrifice and it is to be performed by one, who desires over lordship or spiritual eminence or by one who desires to be the Purohita of a king.[21]
Again, those rulers who were not content with rājya and sāmrājya but aspired to be unrivalled paramount sovereign, termed sārvabhauma, had to perform the Aśvamedha sacrifice. The Āpastambaśrautasūtra says that the Aśvamedha should be performed by an sārvabhauma or non-paramount sovereign.[22]
Sāyaṇācārya in his commentary on the Atharvaveda-saṃhitā, explains the term aśvamedha as—
aśvo medhaḥ paśuryasmin trirātrātmake ahīne some so’śvamedhaḥ //[23]
It is an ahīna type of Soma ritual and it has three sutyā days. It is a rite of a king who is desirous of getting everything, i.e. sarvakāma.[24] This rite is performed on the eighth or ninth day of the bright fortnight of the month of Phālguna.[25] It is performed after the successful completion of an extensive military operation by the king. The Aitareyabrāhmaṇa states that the king, who was consecrated with Aindramahābhiṣeka, was entitled to perform the Aśvamedha sacrifice.[26] The thirteenth kāṇḍa of the Śatapathabrāhmaṇa gives a detailed description of this sacrifice, purpose of this rite and its origin. One who performs the Aśvamedha sacrifice, conquers all the quarters, conquers the world, the priest makes him a ruler and upholder.[27] He, who performs the Aśvamedha attains everything, it is the expiations of all crimes, it is the medicine of all.[28] He acquires all kingdoms, all people, all the Vedas, all the gods and all created beings.[29] If a Rājanya performs the horse-sacrifice, he becomes a great fighter.[30] The Śatapathabrāhmaṇa mentions the names of kings and princes, who performed the Aśvamedha sacrifice, such as-Pārikṣita, Bhīmasena, Ugrasena, Śrutasena, Purukutsa, Kraivya, the king of Pāñcāla, the Āyogava king, Marutta Āvikṣita, etc.[31]
The Āryan people performed some rituals before going to the battlefield. The royal priest, who accompanied to the battle, performed all the rituals on behalf of the king. These rites are looked upon as the first phase of preparation for the battle. While the warriors prepared for battle, the Purohita performed a sacrifice. In it all musical instruments are washed, dipped into a mixture of fragrant substances such as, Tagara and Uśīra[32] and anointed with dregs of ghee.[33] The Purohita sounds them for three times and hands them over to the warriors. The king when he starts for the battle, the Purohita utters the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with vihṛdayaṃ vaimanasyaṃ vadāmitreṣu…etc. (5.21) and makes an offering aloud and throws the sacrificial spoon high in the air.[34] Then, an amulet of a piece of skin of antelope on which Soma-branch is fastened, is tied on the king.[35] The king thrice circumambulates his army with the Atharvavedic hymns beginning with verses nirhastaḥ śatrurabhidāsannastu...etc.,(6.67) and indro jayāti na parā…,etc.(6.98). Ropes made of Bhāṅga (hemp) or Muñja (reed) grass or of any substance anointed with Ingiḍa oil are dispersed on the battlefield with the Atharvavedic hymns beginning with saṃdānaṃ vo bṛhaspatiḥ …..etc. (6.103) and ādānena saṃdānenāmitrānā….etc. (6.104). Then, the Purohita recited the Atharvavedic hymn śumbhanī dyāvāpṛthivī…,etc. (7.118) over the armour and these are given to the king. The Purohita performed a rite known as Sāṃgrāmikā, which is mentioned in the Kauśikasūtra.[36] In this rite, a bow is presented to the king with the utterance of the Atharvavedic hymns beginning with agnistakmānamapa bādhatāmitaḥ….etc., (5.22) and ote me dyāvāpṛthivī…,etc.,(5.23) or girāvaragarāṭeṣu hiraṇye…..etc.(6.97). The priest offered the clarified butter and meal of barley into the fire. A fire is kindled by rubbing the bows and fuels of bows are put into that fire. Similarly, another fire is kindled by rubbing the arrows and fuels of arrows are put into it. Finally, the bow smeared with ghee is presented to the king by the Purohita.
In this context, Dārila says—
saṃgrāme vartamāne dhanuḥ saṃpātavatkṛtvā rājñe prayacchat/[37]
Keśava says that when this rite is performed, the enemies run away from the battlefield.[38]
Before marching to the battlefield, the king practised another rite known as Jayakarma, which is described in the Kauśikasūtra.[39] This rite is performed in two parts. First, the fire is kindled on a wooden chauffer with cow-dung with the utterance of the Atharvavedic hymns beginning with ṛdhaṅmantro yoni ya….etc.,(5.1) and tadidāsa bhuvaneṣu jyeṣṭhaṃ….,etc. (5.2). It is placed on the head of a man. The king offers an oblation of clarified butter into the fire while advancing towards his enemies on the back of the elephant. Then, the chauffer is thrown to the earth.[40] In the second part of this rite, clods of earth unearthed by a swine are used to make a vedi. The priest offers an oblation of clarified butter into the fire with the recitation of the Atharvavedic hymns 5.1 and 5.2. The ashes of a dead warrior who was killed by a single arrow in previous war are placed on the altar and a wheel of a chariot is installed upon it. The priest offers an oblation into the fire through the hole at the centre of the wheel with a long handled sruva with the utterance of the above mentioned Atharvavedic hymns.[41] After that, the priest makes the king proceed to the battlefield. In this context, Dārila says—saṃgrāmayojyāṃ vācaṃ śrutvā purodhā yojayet/[42] This rite is also noted by Sāyaṇācārya in the commentary of the Atharvaveda-saṃhitā.[43] Aiming at the rival army, the priest recites the Atharvavedic verses yadi cinnu tvā…..etc., (5.2.4) and namo devavadhebhyo….etc. (6.13.1), which is clearly stated in Pīyūṣakaṇikā commentary by Shreekishore Mishra.[44] It is noteworthy that the priest performs this rite with the utterance with these two verses when the king is a Vaiśya.[45] Again, if the army or village headman is desirous of victory, then this rite is performed with the Atharvavedic verse tvayā vayaṃ śāśadmahe…etc.,(5.2.5).[46] This rite should be completed within a day.[47]
Before going to the battlefield, the king should select his warriors. To examine the fitness of the warriors, the priest performs a sacrifice on behalf of the king. He sacrifices a water vessel with the recitation of the Atharvavedic verse ni tad dadhiṣe’vare…etc., (5.2.6) and looks for the reflection of the warriors (at a time) upon the water vessel.[48] The priest looks for the reflection along with the king.[49] If the warriors are not seen in the reflection, they are regarded as unfit for the battle and are not appointed by the king.[50]
Shreekishore Mishra also in his Pīyūṣakaṇikā commentary says—
yadi kasya cinmukhaṃ tasminnudapātre na dṛśyate tadā taṃ puruṣaṃ yuddhe na niyojayet/ pratipuruṣayugmamudapātrasya purodhasābhimantraṇaṃ kartavyam//[51]
The Rathārohaṇa ceremony is also performed by the king before going to the battlefield. The priest utters the Atharvavedic verses ni tad dadhiṣe’vare…etc., ayā viṣṭhā janayan…..etc., apakrāman pauruṣeyād…etc., diśaścatasro’śvataryo devarathasya…etc., and vanaspate stīrṇamā sīda….etc.,[52] over the new chariot and makes the king mount it along with the charioteer.[53]
The priest performs another rite known as Senākarma.
Sāyaṇācārya in his commentary on the Atharvaveda-saṃhitā explains this rite as follows—
indro manthatu iti atharvasūktasya śatrukṣayaśatrubhyanāśanaśatrujayasvakīyabalavardhanakarmasu viniyogaḥ / tāni karmāṇi senākarmāṇi nāma bhavanti//[54]
This rite is generally performed in the forest but at the time of battle these are performed in the battlefield or any place deemed suitable for this purpose.[55] Dārila says that this rite is performed in the forest but not in battlefield.[56] This rite is described in detail in the Kauśikasūtra also.[57] The priest places the pūtirajju, i.e. rotten ropes on the fire with the recitation of the Atharvavedic verse pūtirajjurupadhmānī pūtiṃ…etc.,(8.8.2) and kindles the senāgni. Then, the Sapatnakṣayaṇa rite is performed. To destroy enemy, fuels of Aśvattha wood are placed into the fire with the recitation of the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with indro manthatu manthitā….,etc.(8.8). The fire is taken to the forest and faggot of Karimālaka, Eraṇḍa, Palāśa, Khādira and Śara are also placed into the fire. Then, the bhāṅgapāśa, i.e. snares derived from hemp, smeared with oil are scattered on the battlefield with the recitation the verses beginning with indro manthatu manthitā….,etc.(Atharvaveda-saṃhitā ,8.8) Similarly, nooses of Muñja, Vādhaka, Aśvattha, Kūṭa etc., which are besmeared with oil, are also scattered in the battlefield. Then, the king performs an oblation to promote the strength of his own army.[58] He offers an oblation of clarified butter with his right hand in the fire kindled with Vādhaka wood and recites the Atharvavedic verse svāhaibhyo durāhāmībhyaḥ…,.etc.(8.8.24).
Shreekishore Mishra also in his commentary says—
tatra svāhaibhyaḥ iti padadvayena svamitrabalavṛddhyarthaṃ badhakakāṣṭhaprajvālite bādhake senāgnau dakṣiṇahastenājyaṃ juhuyāt//[59]
After that, the priest performs another rite to destroy the power of the enemies. The priest offers Ingiḍa oil with his left hand in the fire, and recites the verse svāhaibhyo durāhāmībhyaḥ.[60]
Shreekishore Mishra in his commentary says—
tatraivāgnau durāhāmībhyaḥ iti padadvayena vāmahastena iṅgiḍākhyājyahomamamitrakṣayārthaṃ kuryāt/[61]
To the north of fire, a branch of red Aśvattha tree is fixed in the ground, covered with blue and red threads and then it is removed to the south with the verse nīlalohitenāmunabhyavatanomi.[62]
To know whether there would be success in the battle or not, the priest performs a rite, which is mentioned in the Kauśikasūtra.[63] In this rite, the priest takes three bow-strings considering by the first rope as ātmasenā (own army), second one as mṛtyu (death) and the third one as parasenā (enemy army).[64] The string representing mṛtyu is placed in the middle and the other two strings on its two sides. If the middle string passes over one of the other two, it signifies the defeat of the enemy army. If one of the outside strings passes over the middle one it signifies the victory of that army which it represents.
Shreekishore Mishra also states—
madhyamā mṛtyurajjuḥ yāṃ senārajjumadhirohati tasyāḥ parājayaḥ/ yadi senātvena bhāvitā rajjuḥ mṛtyurajjorupari āyāti tadā tasyāḥ senāyā vijaya iti jānīyāt/[65]
In this rite, the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with brahmā jajñānaṃ prathamaṃ…..etc.,(5.6) is used while putting the strings upon the embers.[66]
The Kauśikasūtra[67] refers to an act of intimidating the elephants of the enemy. At first, the wheel of the chariot is cast to the elephants of the enemy and then the various carriages of the king like elephants, horses, men, etc., are sent towards the elephants of the foes. In this rite, the musical instruments are played.
In this context Dārila says—
purodhā vāditraiḥ abhiyāti/ bheryādīni vādīni vāditrāṇi bherīmṛdaṅgajhallarikādīni/[68]
Shreekishore Mishra also says—
paṭahabheryādivādyāni sūktenābhimantrya parasenābhimukhaṃ gacchan vādayet/[69]
Clods of earth are put in a dṛti.The same is given to a man and he is sent to the enemy’s elephant. Some broken stones are placed in a carmapuṭayantra and these are sprayed on the battlefield. Sands are also scattered on the battlefield. This rite is performed with the utterance of the verses like, ye triṣaptāḥ….,etc., punarehi vācaspate….,etc., and ihaivābhi vi tanūbhe…,.etc..[70]
The king performs another rite known as Iṣunivāraṇakarma, which is performed to protect from one’s enemy’s arrows and for averting the same. This rite is also mentioned in the Kauśikasūtra.[71] In this rite the performer makes some nooses with bow-string and roots of Dūrvā grass with the recitation of the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with vidmā śarasya pitaraṃ…..,etc.(1.2).[72]
Shreekishore Mishra also in his commentary says—
tatra drughnyārtnījyāpāśaṃ dvayaṅgulamātraṃ chitvā sāṅgrāmike havanatantre vidmā śarasyeti prathamasūktena sampātyābhimantrya badhnīyāt/ dūrvāditṛṇamūlabandhanaṃ vā tathaiva kuryāt/[73]
Then, the oblation of chaffs are offered into the fire with the
recitation of the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with āre sāvasmadastu…,etc.(1.26).The hymn is recited after seeing the enemy.[74] Shreekishore Mishra also says—-śatruṃ śastrapraharaṇodyataṃ śatrusenāṃ vā dṛṣṭvā prakṛtasūktaṃ japet/[75] According to Sāyaṇācārya, this hymn is used to avert the striking of the weapons.[76]
The king performs another rite known as Mohanakarma, which is described in the Kauśikasūtra.[77] This rite is also known as Udvegakarakarma.[78] In this rite, oblation of cooked rice mixed with chaffs are offered with a mortar into the fire with the Atharvavedic hymns beginning with agnirnaḥ śatrūn pratyetu….etc.(3.1) and agnirno dūtaḥ pratyetu….etc.(3.2).
Shreekishore Mishra says—
senāmohanārthaṃ phalīkaraṇāni pakvaudanamiśraṇena piṇḍīkṛtya sāṅgrāmike havanatantre sūktadvayenolūkhaladvārāgnau juhuyāt/[79]
Instead of these, taṇḍulakaṇikā also can be offered in the fire.[80] Twenty-one pieces of pebbles are shaken in a winnowing basket against the enemy and a pot of rice is offered to the god Apvā.[81] According to Griffith, Apvā is a sort of colic, or dysentery, likely to attack soldiers in the field.[82] Then, the priest offers an oblation of clarified butter into the fire with the recitation of the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with saṃśitaṃ ma idaṃ….,etc.(3.19). A white footed goat or sheep is besmeared with clarified butter with the above mentioned hymn. Thereafter, it is driven away towards the enemy by the priest.[83] Then, the king fights with the frightened enemy.
The king performs another ritual in the battlefield, which is described in the Kauśikasūtra.[84] The king performs this rite to protect his own army.[85] With the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with imamindra vardhaya kṣatriyaṃ….etc. (4.22), the priest offers an oblation of clarified butter and barley. A fire is kindled with the sticks derived from a bow and fuels of bow are put into the fire. Another fire is kindled with the sticks derived from an arrow, and arrows are placed into the fire. Then, a consecrated bow is given to the king with the utterance of the Atharvavedic hymn imamindra vardhaya kṣatriyaṃ….etc. (4.22). The king offers oblations to all directions around his army with the Atharvavedic hymn namo devavadhebhyo namo….etc. (6.13). The king stands between his and enemy’s army and meditates the Atharvavedic hymns beginning with tvayā manyo sarathamārujanto..…. etc. (4.31) and yaste manyo’vidhad vajra…..etc.(4.32) looking at both the armies.[86] Then the king strews the besmeared bhāṅgapāśā (snares of hemp) and muñjapāśā(anointed nooses of reeds) on the battlefield. He scatters anointed earthen pots (āmapātra) on the fighting place with the same hymns mentioned above.[87]
The Kauśikasūtra prescribes a rite to know the outcome of a battlefield.[88] To know the results of the battle, the priest kindles the Āṅgirasa fire between two armies. The reeds anointed with Iṅgida oil are put into the fire with the recitation of the Atharvavedic hymns beginning with tvayā manyo sarathamārujanto…. etc., (4.31) and yaste manyo’vidhad vajra…..etc., (4.32). The army, towards which the smoke blows, will be defeated by the other.
In this context, Keśava says—
senayormadhye kṛtvā yān dhūmo’vatanoti te jayanti yatra dhūmo gacchati tatra na jayaḥ/[89]
This rite is also mentioned in the Atharvaveda-saṃhitā.[90]
The Senābhayanivṛttikarma is a simple rite to dispel fear created by the enemy. In this rite the Saptarṣis are praised and oblations are offered in every direction for them with the mantras from the abhayagaṇa.[91]
Keśava in his commentary says—
saptaṛṣīnyajate pratidiśaṃ senāyāḥ….. pratidiśaṃ senāyā upatiṣṭhate vā/[92]
Shreekishore Mishra explains this rite as follows—
senāyā abhayakāmārtham abhayaṃ dyāvāpṛthivī iti sūktena sūtroktānām saptarṣyupasthānādikarmaṇāṃ prayogaḥ kartavyaḥ/[93]
In order to destroy the enemy and achieve victory, Arbudi and Nyarbudi, these two divinities are implored to render help in the battlefield.[94] The rites pertaining to these deities are described in the Kauśikasūtra.[95] This rite begins with exhortation of the warriors by the Purohita according to the hymns. The pṛṣadājya (ghee mixed with sour milk) and saktu (barley) are offered into the fire. Snares and traps are thrown on the way of the enemy and then the forms of Triṣandhi, Vajrarūpa, and Arbudi are anointed with clarified butter and are thrown into the battlefield. According to Dārila, Triṣandhi is to cut the enemy; the Vajrarūpa is for breaking and Arbudi is for bringing about the fall.[96] A white-footed cow anointed with dregs of ghee and fastened with a rope of Darbha grass is fastened to the staff where the king and his soldiers stay and another white-footed cow is driven towards the enemy camp.
The Akṣayānavamī ceremony is performed on the ninth day of the dark fortnight in the month of Āśvina. In this rite the armies, cavalry and chariots are consecrated.[97]
The Kauśikasūtra prescribes a rite called Ārogyavijñāna in detail.[98] To examine the fate of the person who is on the threshold of death on account of disease or of battle and the like, the Ārogyavijñāna rite is performed.
Shreekishore Mishra in his commentary says—
yuddhe āhatasyānyasya vā jīvanasaṃśaye jīviṣyati na veti parijñānāya tattvāvadhāraṇavijñānaṃ jīvitavijñānam/[99]
In this rite, the ropes either snāyu, i.e. strings or ligaments of human or animal origin are used. These strings are cast into embers with the reciatation of the Atharvavedic hymn brahma jajñānaṃ prathamaṃ….etc.(5.6). If these sprung out, the sufferer is expected to get relief.[100]
The Purohita should utter two Atharvavedic hymns to make the enemy nirhasta.[101] The Āśvālāyanagṛhyasūtra[102] explains how the Purohita should assist the king in making preparations for the battle, perform necessary rituals for victory and accompany him to the battlefield. When a king goes to the battlefield, the Purohita takes a leading part in his efforts. He should stand to the west of the chariot and utters the Ṛgvedic hymn beginning with jīmūtasyeva bhavati….etc . (6.75).[103] He should give the armour to the king with the verse jīmūtasyeva bhavati…,etc.(6.75.1),from the sixth maṇḍala of the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā.[104] With the Ṛgvedic verse dhanvanā gā dhanvanājiṃ…etc.(6.75.2), he should give the bow to the king.
Then the priest should cause him to pronounce the verse—
vakṣyantīvedā ganīganti karṇaṃ priyaṃ sakhāyaṃ pariṣasvajānā/ yoṣeva śiṅkte vitatādhi dhanvañjyā iyaṃ samane pārayantī//[105]
After that, he pronounces the following verse—
te ācarantī samaneva yoṣā māteva putraṃ bibhṛtāmupasthe/ apa śatrūnvidhyatāṃ saṃvidāne ārtnī ime viṣphurantī amitrān//[106]
With the Ṛgvedic verse bahnīnāṃ pitā…etc.(6.75.5), the Purohita should give the quiver to the king.
When the king starts, he should murmur the verse—
rathe tiṣṭhannayati vājinaḥ puro yatrayatra kāmayate suṣārathiḥ/ abhīśūnāṃ mahimānaṃ panāyata manaḥ paścādanu yacchanti raśmayaḥ //[107]
Over the horses, he should utter the verse of the sixth maṇḍala of the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā.[108] When the king looks at arrows, he should repeat the Ṛgvedic verse rathavāhanaṃ havirasy….,etc(6.75.8). The Āśvālāyanagṛhyasūtra states that the Purohita should murmur the verse ahiriva bhogaiḥ… etc.(6.75.14), when the king ties his arms with the leather.[109] He should ascend the king’s chariot and cause him to repeat the Abhivarta hymn and two verses from the eighth maṇḍala of the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā.[110] While he is driving, he looks at the king with the three hymns, viz. Apratiratha, Śāsa and Sauparṇa.[111] The Aitareyabrāhmaṇa also states that the Purohita should coronate the king with these hymns, who want to win the battle.[112] The king should commence the battle from the east if it is day or from the west if it is night.[113] Then, the king touches the drum and recites the verses beginning with upa śvāsaya pṛthivīmuta….,etc., ā krandaya balamojo.…,etc., āmūraja pratyāvartayemāḥ.…,etc., (6.47.29-31) from the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā.[114]
When the king turns off the arrows, the Purohita should utter the following verse—
avasṛṣṭā parā pata śaravye brahmasaṃśite/ gacchāmitrānpra padyasva māmīṣāṃ kaṃ canocchiṣaḥ//[115]
The Purohita should utter the verse—yatra vāṇāḥ sampatanti kumārā viśikhāiva/ tatrā no brahmaṇaspatiraditiḥ śarma yacchatu viśvāhā śarma yacchatu,[116] when the battle is on, or he should teach the king to pronounce the verse himself.[117]
The king should perform some other rites also which are related to the destruction of the enemies, i.e. to control the enemies of the country, to destroy the enemies by incantation as well as he should perform some rites to destroy the prosperities of his enemies.[118] In a Ṛgvedic verse, it is mentioned that the Abhīvarta oblation is offered to secure success in fight and to make all being, both gods and men friendly towards the king.[119] The king should offer prayers to various deities also for rendering help in the battlefield. The seer prays to the divine rulers like Indra, Varuṇa, Bṛhaspati and Agni for the success of the king.[120] The king offers to Indra and other gods prior to the starting of the expedition. In a Ṛgvedic verse, it is mentioned that as the offering is stable, it will make the king firm in battle.[121] The king partakes the same haviḥ as is partaken of by Indra.[122] This would make the king victorious and render him to be one without any enemy.[123] In the Śatapathabrāhmaṇa, it is mentioned that the sacrificial altar is made of foeless (asapatna) bricks to make the life free from the enemies.[124] Indra leads the sacrifice so that war may be won.[125] In the battlefield, Brahmaṇaspati collects the debt from the enemy when the priest pours offering in the fire in the sacrificial assembly.[126] There is a hymn in the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, where Indra is prayed for aid and victory in the battlefield.[127] Indra is prayed to win the arrows of the enemy army.[128] He is considered as eminent warrior and a great leader of tribes,[129] or the leader of the troops.[130] Without his help, no one can win in the battlefield and as such, a warrior is seen calling Indra for help.[131]
Commenting on this, Sāyaṇācārya says—
yudhyamānāḥ yuddhaṃ kurvāṇā janāḥ avase svarakṣaṇāya yam indraṃ havante āhvayanti//[132]
Bṛhaspati also flies with the chariot hither and drives away the enemy. He is prayed as the protector of the warrior’s car, destroyer, victor in battle and break-up of armies.[133] The Vedic female deity Apvā is also prayed to subdue the enemies.[134] Agni is also invoked to kill all the rivals.[135] He is the typical leader of the vanguard armies.[136]
It is stated that Agni as a war-god, is capable of bringing victory to a dethroned king—
acikradat svapā iha bhuvadagne vyacasva rodasī urūcī / yuñjantu tvā maruto viśvavedasa āmuṃ naya namasā rodasī rātahavyam//[137]
He devours the enemies of the worshippers like dry faggot.[138] The Atharvaveda-saṃhitā contains a prayer to god Agni to burn their enemies and slay them. The sacrificer wants to burn their enemies by the flesh eating fire.[139] In the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, there is a verse where Indra and Agni are prayed for victory over hostile combatants and for their destruction.[140] The fifth chapter of the eighth pañcikā, of the Aitereyabrāhmaṇa mentions a magical rite called Brahmaṇaḥ Parimaraḥ, meant for destroying rival kings. All the enemies and foes of the king, who knows this rite, die round about him.[141] After the performance of this rite, the Purohita makes the king to observe a special vow. This vow holds that the king must not sit down before the enemy. If he thinks that his enemy remains standing, he too should remain standing or if he learns that his enemy is awake then he should never sleep.[142]
The Śrauta works also lays down some rites for the king. In the case of revolt by his subjects and fear of enemies, the king should offer a cake on eleven potsherds to Vaimṛdha Indra.[143] Again, one who desires to overpower the king, should offer a cake on seven potsherds to the Maruts.[144]
The Kauśikasūtra describes a rite called Rāṣṭrapraveśakarma.[145] Sometimes the king is dethroned and exiled by his enemies.[146] Thus, the king, who is desirous to get back his kingdom and glory, performs this ritual—svarāṣṭre yo niṣkrānatḥ śatruṇā punaḥ praveśamichati tasyedaṃ karma/[147] At the beginning of this rite, the dethroned king is welcomed with the recitation of the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with asmin vasu vasavo.…etc. (1.9). Then, the Ānuśūkā Vrīhi is cooked on the fire of Kāmpila wood collected from stems which have regrown after being cut. In this conrext, Dārila says the Ānuśūkā Vrīhi is derived from regerminated plants which have grown anew after being reaped.[148] The milk used for cooking is taken from a cow having a calf of the same colour as her own. This dish is given to the king to partake with the Atharvavedic hymn 1.9. An amulet is prepared in shape of a fish. It is prepared with a part of the rim of the wheel of the chariot of the king and it is covered with various metals, such as-black iron (ayaḥ), lead (śīsa), silver (rajata), copper (tāmra). The navel of the amulet is made of gold.[149] The thread, which is made of Barhi grass, is used to tie the amulet. This amulet is prepared to destroy the enemy. Then, the amulet is smeared with clarified butter. The Atharvavedic verses abhīvartena maṇinā….etc, abhivṛtya sapatnānabhi…..etc., abhi tvā devaḥ….etc., abhīvarto abhibhavaḥ….etc.,(1.29.1-4) are recited while preparing the maṇi and while fastening this, the remaining verses of this hymn, i.e. udasau sūryo agādudidaṃ…etc., and sapatnakṣayaṇo vṛṣābhirāṣṭro…etc.(1.29.5-6) are recited. A puroḍāśa is prepared in the shape of the enemy army,[150] or in the shape of a couch.[151] It is placed on the Darbha grasses which are spread on the water of the pot.[152] In this context, Dārila says that the Darbha grass is to be sprinkled with water.[153] A lump of earth is smeared deep into the puroḍāśa to sink well. Another lump is spread over the fire–place and then with the recitation of the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with acikradat svapā iha….etc. (3.3) kṣīraudana is given to the dethroned king to eat. On the fourth morning from that day, the king eats the submerged puroḍāśa which is formerly dipped into the water of the water pot. By performing this, the banished king is sought to re-establish his own kingdom. In this context, it is stated that in this ritual the sacrificial requisites like, rice, water, Darbha grass, etc., are collected from the kingdom from which he was expelled and the puroḍāśa, kśīraudāna, etc., are prepared in the place where the king presently leaves.
Besides these, the king should perform some other rituals also for his own protection and to acquire long life. The priest performs the Piṣṭarātrikalpa rite at night for peace and protection of the king, which is mentioned in the sixth pariśiṣṭa of the Atharvavedapariśiṣṭa. The term piṣṭa means grinded and the Brāhmaṇa literature refers to it to mean flour.[154] But in the Atharvaveda-saṃhitā, the word means pounded corn.[155] In this rite, goddess Rātri is worshipped. In the beginning of this rite, the Purohita purifies a place by besmearing cow-dung on the ground to the east of the bedstead of the king. Then, an image of goddess Rātri which is made of flour is placed on the purified spot facing to the north. The Purohita summons the deity with the Atharvavedic verse yāṃ devāḥ pratinandati….etc., (3.10.2) and places her image with the utterance of the Atharvavedic verse saṃvatsarasya pratimāṃ….etc.(3.10.3). The priest touch the image with the recitation of the verses mamobhā….[156] and mahyam āpaḥ…,etc.[157] The deity is worshipped with the offerings of a golden parasol and seat, white garments and unguents, white food and modakas, garlands and incense[158] and four lamps are kindled.[159] Goddess Rātri, who wears a necklace of stars as well as of planets and who puts all creatures to sleep like a loving mother, prayed to for the sake of peace and protection. The Atharvavedic verses like ā rātri pārthivaṃ….,etc.,(19.47.1) and iṣirā yoṣā yuvatirdamūnā….,etc.,(19.49.1) are recited in this connection. The lamps are waved over the head of the king three times with the utterance of the Atharvavedic verses trāyamāṇe viśvajite mā….,etc.,(6.107.2) and ahne ca tvā rātraye….etc.,(8.2.20). Then, the priest offers mustard seeds into the fire with the utterance of the Atharvavedic verse yo naḥ svo yo araṇaḥ….,etc.,(1.19.3) and he also recites the verses of the rakṣohanagaṇa.[160] He utters the verses to scatter some musterd seeds round the bed of the king after meditating on the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with āvatasta āvataḥ,….etc.,(5.30). Incense is burnt, its ashes are taken with the recitation of the Atharvavedic verses yaste gandhaḥ pṛthivi…., etc., yaste gandhaḥ puṣkaramāviveśa…,etc., yaste gandhaḥ puruṣeṣu…..,etc.,(12.1.23-25) and they are applied on the king with the Atharvavedic verse tryāyuṣaṃ jamadagneḥ…,etc.,(5.28.7). Four stones are thrown in the four quarters with the utterance of the verses from the Atharvavedic hymn abhayaṃ dyāvāpṛthivī….., etc.,(6.40.1) and asapatnaṃ purastāt…., etc.,(19.16.1). An image of goddess Rātri, having one or two faces are placed in every corner and one idol of four faces is placed in the centre. Another image made of flour is kept at the door of the palace. Then, the priest recites the Atharvavedic hymn beginning with śāntā dyauḥ śāntā….,etc.,(19.9) while ushering the king to his bedroom. By performing this rite, the king secures protection at night. In this context, B.R. Modak states that it is the daily ritual to be observed by the priest on behalf of the king.[161]
The king performs a daily ritual, Ghṛtāvekṣaṇa to become successful. The word ghṛtāvekṣana comes from the words ghṛta (clarified butter) and avekṣaṇa (looking). Therefore, it means looking at the clarified butter. This rite is described in the eighth pariśiṣṭa of the Atharvavedapariśiṣṭa.[162] The Brahmayāga ritual is also performed by the king to acquire long life and sovereignty. In this rite, god Brahmā is praised. The thirty-third pariśiṣṭa of the Atharvavedapariśiṣṭa describes another important royal ceremony called Ghṛtakambala. A king who is attacked by the enemies, who is desirous of success, prosperity, who seeks to avert evil effects of various omens and portents should perform this ceremony.[163] The term ghṛta means clarified butter and the kambala means a rug. Thus, it refers to a ceremony of smearing and covering the king with clarified butter and a rug. In this rite, Bṛhaspati and Mahendra are praised.
For the prosperity of the king the priest performed the Indramaha rite, which is described in the Kauśikasūtra.[164] Shreekishore Mishra in his commentary says—
yo hi nṛpatirevamindramahavidhānaṃ jānāti sarvaṃ jñātvā indramahākhyenotsavenānuṣṭhānaṃ karoti tasya rāṣṭramuttarottaradineṣu vipulaṃ sañjāyate//[165]
This rite is performed on the eighth day in the bright fortnight of Bhādrapada or Āśvina.[166] In this rite, at first the Brāhmaṇa Purohita and the king bathe, wear new garments and observe a fast. Second day, they sip water six times, invoke Indra and offered clarified butter to him. All the attendants of the king are initiated and they also observe the vow. They also offered oblation to Indra thrice a day and worship him for three or five nights. At the end of this rite, they go out for a concluding bath and return without looking back, and then they fed the Brāhmaṇas.
The king should perform all the rituals without taking into consideration, auspicious days, nakṣatras and the like. The first pariśiṣṭa of the Atharvavedapariśiṣṭa is known as nakṣatrakalpa, where particular nakṣatras are mentioned for various works. The king should perform various rites under some particular constellations for his welfare, which is mentioned in this pariśiṣṭa. Such as, a king should take up arms under the Kṛttikā constellation beacause it is a luminous constellation shining brightly in the heaven. Thereby, he prospers like the Kṛttikā.[167] He should procure reins and saddles, which are made under the Rohiṇī constellation. Under this constellation, the king should keep quite and should not attack his enemies.[168] Under the Maghā constellation also, he should stay quiet and should not move forward on an attack.Otherwise he will not prosper.[169] Under the Mṛgaśiras constellation, also known as Mṛgaśīrṣa, he should purchase horses and by doing this his army will not perish and he will prosper.[170] He should start an expedition for hunting, or he should march ahead for fighting under the Ārdrā constellation.[171] The king should start fighting with the enemy under the Punarvasū[172] or he should drive his army to fight under the Puṣyā constellation.[173]
He should order the construction of city gates and appoint attendants under the Purvaphālgunī constellation.[174] The Atharvavedapariśiṣṭa mentions that the king should order the construction of the city gates and prepare planks of wood under the Uttaraphālgunī and attack the enemy under the same constellation.[175] Under the Hastā constellation, he should wait to start any auspicious act.[176] Under the Citrā, he should complete his plans and accomplish them before the advent of the Svāti constellation.[177] In the same constellation, he should order the training of the young horses for good speed.[178] The king should prepare tuckers under the Viśākhā constellation and thereby he will not perish.[179] To become an emperor of the earth, a horn of a rhinoceros or of a bull or a tusk of an elephant is put into the water and the king is bathed with this water under the Viśākhā constellation.[180] The elephants of the Kṣatriya king should be anointed and given to the king under the Anurādhā constellation.[181] He looks at his elephants under the Jyeṣṭhā constellation. The Abhiṣeka ceremony of the princes should be performed under the same constellation and he should ask the princes to start fighting practice under it.[182] A deep trench is to be dug round the city under the Mulā. This is supposed to enable the king to kill the enemies.[183] After being initiated for three nights, the king should observe a vow under the Pūrvāṣāḍhā.[184] and under the Uttarāṣāḍhā constellation one should drink juice and proceed towards the west for attaining success.[185] He should engage his army in the battle under the Abhijit constellation.[186] Under the Śravaṇā constellation, the king wishes to overcome battle.[187] He should start his military expedition under the Pūrvaproṣṭhapada[188] and start fighting under the Uttaraproṣṭhapada.[189] Under the Śraviṣṭhā constellation rasas are prepared and the king should eat this rasas.[190] Under the Śatabhiṣak constellation, a medical check-up of the king is to be taken and if he is found sick, medical treatment is to be started under the same constellation.[191] In the Aśvinī and Bharanī constellation, the king should prepare his army.[192] Under the Revatī constellation, the king stays at home[193] and if he takes bath under the same with the water mixed with honey and clarified butter duly poured with a horn of a rhinoceros, he becomes the emperor of the entire earth.[194]
Thus, it can be observed that the Purohita enjoyed a very important position in the kingdom. He accompanied the king to the battlefield in order to ensure his safety and victory. He was a physician, magician, priest, adviser, protector, philosopher and friend-all in one. Various musical instruments like, drum, tambourine, trumpet, conch-shell, horn, etc., played by the Purohita in the battlefield. The Purohita with his prayers and blessings makes a king the greatest among the subjects. The king performs various rituals in times of war or before the war. He performs all rituals for warding off the evils. He should perform all the rites, i.e. gṛhya and śrauta rites with the help of his particular priest.[195]
Footnotes and references:
[2]:
Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 5.3.4
[3]:
Ibid., 5.1.2
[4]:
Ibid., 13.1.5
[8]:
Vide, Modak, B.R., The Ancillary Literature of the Atharvaveda—A Study with Special References to the Pariśiṣṭas, p.86
[9]:
iṣṭipaśusomadarvīhomaiḥ śatapradhāno rājasūyaḥ/ tatra śvobhūte’numatyai puroḍāśamaṣṭākapālam ityādinā vihitāḥ iṣṭyaḥ, atha śyenīṃ vicitragarbhāmadityā ālabhate ityādinā vihitāḥ paśavaḥ, pavitrābhiṣecanīya-daśapeya-keśavapanīya-vyuṣṭidvirātra-kṣatradhṛtisaṃjñakāḥ sapta somayāgāḥ pañcavātīyādayo darvīhomāḥ// Sāyaṇa, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 5.2. 3
[10]:
vājapeyeneṣṭvā samrāḍiti nāmādhatta…../Gopatha-brāhmaṇa , 1.5.8—Also vide, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 5.1.1.13
[11]:
Sāyaṇa, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 11.9.7
[12]:
prajāpateḥ prajā amūmeti prajāpaterhyeṣa prajā bhavati yo vājapeyena yajate / Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 5.2.1.11
[13]:
sa vā eṣa brāhmaṇasyaiva yajñaḥ/ yadenena bṛhaspatirayajata brahma hi bṛhaspatirbrahma hi brāhmaṇo’tho rājanyasya yadenenendro’yajata kṣatraṃ hīndraḥ kṣatraṃ rājanyaḥ// Ibid., 5.1.1.11—Vide, yato bṛhaspatinā’nuṣṭhitaḥ, yato devānāṃ madhye bṛhaspatiḥ brāhmaṇajātyabhimānī, brāhmaṇabṛhaspatyorbrahmasambandhād aikarūpyam; ‘brahma adhīte veda vā brāhmaṇaḥ’-iti vyutpatteḥ/ indreṇāpyayamanuṣṭhitaḥ, yato devānāṃ madhye indraḥ kṣatriyajātyabhimānī/ indrarājanyayoḥ kṣatrasambandhādaikarūpyam ….// Sāyaṇa, Ibid.—Also vide, Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa , 1.3.2.3
[14]:
sa vā eṣa brāhmaṇasya caiva rājanyasya ca yajñaḥ// Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa , 1.3.2.1—Also vide, Kātyāyana-śrauta-sūtra , 14.1.1
[17]:
Kātyāyana-śrauta-sūtra , 14.1.23
[18]:
śukravatyo jyotiṣmatyaḥ prātaḥsavane bhavanti, tejo brahmavarcasaṃ tābhirāpnoti/ vājavatvo mādhyandine savane svargasya lokasya samaṣṭyai/ annavatyo gaṇavatyaḥ paśumatyastatīyasavane bhavanti, bhūmānaṃ tābhirāpnoti// Gopatha-brāhmaṇa , 2.5.8
[19]:
Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 5.2.1.19
[20]:
Vide, Basu, Jogiraj, op. cit., p.93
[21]:
Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa , 2.7.1
[23]:
Sāyaṇa, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 11.9.7
[24]:
rājayajño’śvamedhaḥ sarvakāmasya // Kātyāyana-śrauta-sūtra , 20.1.1
[25]:
aṣṭamyāṃ navamyā vā phālgunīśuklasya // Ibid., 20.1.2
[26]:
etena ha vā aindreṇa mahābhiṣekeṇa turaḥ kāvaṣeyo janamejayaṃ pārikṣitamabhiṣiṣea; tasmādu janamejayaḥ pārikṣitaḥ samantaṃ sarvataḥ pṛthivīṃ jayan parīyāyāśvena ca medhyeneje// Aitareya-brāhmaṇa , 8.4.7
[27]:
aśvamedhayājī sarvā diśo’bhijayati bhūvanamasīti bhuvanantajjayati yantāsi dharteti yantāramevainaṃ dhartāraṅkaroti //Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 13.1.2.3
[28]:
yo’śvamedhena yajate sarva eva bhavati sarvasya vā eṣā prāyaścittiḥ sarvasya bheṣajam// Ibid., 13.3.1.1
[29]:
[30]:
yatraitena yajñena yajanta ā rājanyo’tivyādhī jayate // Ibid., 13.3.7.9
[31]:
Ibid., 13.5.4
[32]:
uccairghoṣa upa śvāsayeti sarvavāditrāṇi prakṣālya tagarośīreṇa saṃdhāvya saṃpātavanti trirāhatya prayachati// Kauśika-sūtra ,16.1
[33]:
Vide, Karambelkar,V.W., op.cit., p.200
[34]:
vihṛdayamityuccaistarāṃ hutvā sruvamudvartayan // Kauśika-sūtra , 16.2
[35]:
somāṃśuṃ hariṇacarmaṇyutsīvya kṣatriyāya badhnāti // Ibid., 16.3
[36]:
vidmā śarasya mā no vidannadārasṛtsvastidā ava manyurnirhastaḥ pari vartmānyabhibhūrindro jayātyabhi tvendreti sāṃgrāmikāṇi/ ājyasaktūñjuhoti / dhanuridhme dhanuḥsamidhamādadhāti /evamiṣvidhme / dhanuḥ saṃpātavadvimṛjya prayachati// Ibid., 14.7-11
[37]:
Dārila, Ibid., 14.11
[38]:
saṃgrāme ayudhyamāne jayo bhavati/ ebhiḥ karmabhiḥ dṛṣṭamātrataḥ śatravaḥ palāyante// Keśava,Ibid.
[39]:
ṛdhaṅmantrastadidāsetyāśvatthyāṃ pātryāṃ trivṛti gomayaparicaye hastipṛṣṭhe puruṣaśirasi vāmitrāñjuhvadabhiprakramya nivapati/varāhavihitādrājāno vediṃ kurvanti/tasyāṃ pradānāntāni/ ekeṣvāhatasyādahana upasamādhāya dīrghadaṇḍena sruveṇa rathacakrasya khena samayā juhoti/ yojanīyāṃ śrutvā yojayet/ yadi cinnu tvā namo devavadhebhya ityanvāha // Kauśika-sūtra ,15.1-6
[40]:
tatpātraṃ prakṣipati bhūmyāṃ/ Keśava, Ibid., 15.1
[41]:
[42]:
Dārila, Ibid., 15.5
[43]:
Sāyaṇa, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 5.1
[44]:
śatrumabhimukhaṃ paśyan yadi cinnu ityṛcaṃ, namo devavadhebhyaḥ iti sūktañca tajjayakāmanayā paṭhet / Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Kauśika-sūtra , 15.6
[45]:
bhūmyadhipatirvaiśyajātīyaścettasya saṅgrāmaprāptau purohito yadi cinnu ityṛcā, namo devavadhebhya iti sūktena ca pūrvoktavat ājyahomādi dhanuḥ pradānāntaṃ karma kuryāt/ Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Ibid., 15.7
[46]:
tvayā vayamityāyudhigrāmaṇye// Kauśika-sūtra , 15.8
[47]:
ahani samāptau nivapanaṃ pātryāḥ // Dārila, Ibid.,15.1
[48]:
ni taddadhiṣa iti rājñodapātraṃ dvaudvāvavekṣayet/Kauśika-sūtra , 15.9
[50]:
yanna paśyenna yudhyeta// Kauśika-sūtra , 15.10
[51]:
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Ibid., 15.10
[52]:
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 5.2.6, 7.3.1, 7.110.1, 8.8.22, 12.3.33
[53]:
[54]:
Sāyaṇa, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 8.8
[55]:
senākarmāṇi araṇye kāryāṇi na grāme/ yuddhapradeśe vā yathāprasaṅgam// Sāyaṇa, Ibid., 8.8
[56]:
araṇye karmedaṃ na yuddhadeśe// Dārila, Kauśika-sūtra , 16.14
[57]:
indro manthatviti/ pūtirajjuriti pūtirajjumavadhāya/ aśvatthabadhakayoragniṃ manthati/ dhūmamiti dhūmamanumantrayate/ agnimityagnim/tasminnaraṇye sapatnakṣayaṇīrādadhātyaśvatthabadhakatājaḍbhaṅgāvhakhadiraśarāṇām/ uktāḥ pāśāḥ/ āśvatthāni kūṭāni bhāṅgāni jālāni/ bādhakadaṇḍāni/ svāhaibhya iti mitrebhyo juhoti/ durāhāmībhya iti savyeneṅgiḍamamitrebhyo bādhake/ uttarato’gnerlohitāśvatthasya śākhāṃ nihatya nīlalohitābhyāṃ sūtrābhyāṃ paritatya nīlalohitenāmūniti dakṣiṇā prahāpayati// Kauśika-sūtra , 16.9-20
[58]:
ātmīyārthabalārthamājyaṃ juhoti/ Dārila, Ibid., 15.18
[59]:
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Kauśika-sūtra , 16.18
[60]:
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 8.8.24
[61]:
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Kauśika-sūtra , 16.19
[62]:
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 8.8.24
[63]:
[64]:
[65]:
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Ibid., 15.16
[66]:
anena sūktena tisraḥ snāvarajjūrabhimantraya ekā ātmasenā rajjuḥ dvitīyā madhye mṛtyuḥ tṛtīyā rajjuḥ paraseneti saṃkalpya aṅgāreṣu nidadhāti / yasyā upari mṛtyurgacchati tasyāḥ parājayo bhavati/ yā mṛtyurupari patati tasyā jayo bhavati/yā samukhā yāti tasyā api jayo bhavati// Sāyaṇa Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 5.6
[67]:
purvasya hastitrasanāni/ rathacakreṇa saṃpātavatā pratipravartayati/ yānenābhiyāti/ vāditraiḥ/ dṛtivastyoropya śarkarāḥ/ tottreṇa nagnaprachannaḥ// Kauśika-sūtra, 14.1-6
[68]:
Dārila, Ibid., 14.4
[69]:
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Ibid.
[70]:
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 1.1.1-3
[71]:
prathamasyeṣuparyayaṇāni/ drughnyārtnījyāpāśatṛṇamūlāni badhnāti/ āre’sāvityapanodanāni/ phalīkaraṇatuṣabusāvatakṣaṇānyāvapati/ anvāha // Kauśika-sūtra , 14.12-16
[72]:
tathā anenaiva sūktena saṃpātayuktābhimantritadrughnyārtnījyāpāśabandhanaṃ tadvaddūrvāditṛṇabandhanaṃ ca iṣunivāraṇakāmaḥ kuryyāt// Sāyaṇa, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 1.2
[73]:
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Kauśika-sūtra , 14.13
[74]:
āre’sāviti sūktena śatruṃ dṛṣṭvā japati// Keśava, Ibid., 14. 16
[75]:
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Ibid.
[76]:
[77]:
agnirnaḥ śatrūnagnirno dūta iti mohanāni/ odanenopayamya phalīkaraṇānulūkhalena juhoti/ evamaṇūn/ ekaviṃśatyā śarkarābhiḥ pratiniṣpunāti/ apvāṃ yajate/ saṃśitamiti śitipadīṃ saṃpātavatīmavasṛjati/ udvṛdhatsu yojayet/ Kauśika-sūtra ,14.17-23
[78]:
Keśava, Ibid.,14.23
[79]:
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Ibid., 14.18
[80]:
pūrvoktavidhayaiva taṇḍulakaṇikā vā juhuyāt/ Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Ibid., 14.19
[81]:
Taittirīya-saṃhitā , 6.2.2.5
[82]:
Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p.617
[84]:
imamindreti yuktayoḥ pradānāntāni/ digyuktābhyāṃ namo devavadhebhya ityupatiṣṭhate/ tvayā manyo yaste manyo iti saṃrambhaṇāni/ sene samīkṣamāṇo japati/ bhāṅgamauñjānpāśāniṅgiḍālaṃkṛtānsaṃpātavato’nūktānsenākrameṣu vapati/ evamāmapātrāṇi// Kauśika-sūtra ,14.24-29
[85]:
svasenārakṣaṇārthaṃ karmocyate/ Keśava, Ibid.,14.25
[86]:
senayormadhye sthito japati nirīkṣamāṇaḥ/ Keśava, Ibid., 14.27
[87]:
tathā ābhyāṃ sūktābhyāṃ bhāṅgapāśān mauñjapāśān āmapātrāṇi vā saṃpātya abhimantrya parasenāsaṃcārasthaleṣu prakṣipet// Sāyaṇa, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 4.31
[88]:
iṅgiḍena saṃprokṣya tṛṇānyāṅgirasenāgninā dīpayati/ yāṃ dhūmo’vatanoti tāṃ jayanti// Kauśika-sūtra , 14.30-31
[89]:
Keśava, Ibid., 14.31
[90]:
[91]:
Kauśika-sūtra , 16.8
[92]:
Keśava, Ibid.
[93]:
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Ibid.
[94]:
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 11.9, 11.10
[95]:
ye bāhava uttiṣṭhateti yathāliṅgaṃ saṃpreṣyati/ homārthe pṛṣadājyam/ pradānāntāni vāpyāni/ vāpyaistriṣandhīni vajrarūpāṇyarbudirūpāṇi/ śitipadīṃ saṃpātavatīṃ darbharajjvā kṣatriyāyopāsaṅgadaṇḍe badhnāti/ dvitīyāmasyati// Kauśika-sūtra , 16.21-26
[96]:
triṣaṃdhīni chedāya vajrarūpāṇi bhedāya arbudirūpāṇi ca pātāya// Dārila, Ibid., 16.24
[97]:
Vide, Modak, B.R., op. cit., p.250
[98]:
brahma jajñānamiti jīvitavijñānam/ tisraḥ snāvarajjūraṅgāreṣvavadhāya/ utkucatīṣu kalyāṇam// Kauśika-sūtra , 15.12-14
[99]:
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Ibid., 15.12
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 6.65, 6.66
Āśvālayana-gṛhya-sūtra , 3.12
yuddhe anena sūktena rājānaṃ saṃnāhayet// Sāyaṇa, Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75
Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.3
Ibid., 6.75.4
Ibid., 6.75.6
tīvrānghoṣānkṛṇvate vṛṣapāṇayo’śvā rathebhiḥ saha vājayantaḥ/ avakrāmantaḥ prapadairamitrān kṣiṇanti śatrūranapavyayantaḥ// Ibid., 6.75.7
ahiriva bhogaiḥ paryeti bāhumiti tatnaṃ nahyamānaṃ // Āśvālayana-gṛhya-sūtra , 3.12.11
athainaṃ sārayamāṇamupāruhyābhīvarte vācayati prayovāṃ mitrāvaruṇeti ca dve// Ibid., 3.12.12
athainamanvīkṣetāpratirathaiśāsa sauparṇaiḥ// Ibid., 3.12.13
abhīvartena ityādinā sūktena enaṃ jayārthinamuktakrameṇa dikṣvāvartayet/atha anantaramāvartamānamenaṃ sūktatrayeṇānvīkṣeta// Sāyaṇa, Aitareya-brāhmaṇa , 8.2.6
ādityamauśanasaṃ vāvasthāya prayodhayet// Āśvālayana-gṛhya-sūtra , 3.12.16
upaśvāsaya pṛthivīmuta dyāmiti tṛcena dundubhimabhimṛśet// Ibid., 3.12.17
Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 6.75.16
Ibid., 6.75.17
athavā rājñe purodhā ācakṣīta ekasmin kale iyamṛktaveti// Nārāyaṇa, Āśvālayana-gṛhya-sūtra , 3.12.20
śāntipuṇyāhasvastyayanāyuṣmanmaṅgalasaṃyuktānyābhyudayikāni vidveṣaṇasaṃvananābhicāradvipadvyṛddhiyuktāni ca śālāgnau kuryāt// Gautama-dharma-sūtra , 2.2.17
abhīvartena haviṣā yenendro abhivāvṛte/ tenāsmān brahmaṇaspate’bhi rāṣṭrāya vartaya// Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 10.174.1
imamindro adīdharad dhruvaṃ dhruveṇa haviṣā / tasmai somo adhi bravattasmā u brahmaṇaspatiḥ //Ibid., 10.173.3
yenendro haviṣā kṛtvyabhavad dyumnyuttamaḥ / idaṃ tadakri devā asapatnaḥ kilābhuvam // Ibid., 10.174.4
Ibid.
Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 8.5.1.4
Ibid., 10.103
Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 1.32
Ibid., 10.103.8
yasmānna ṛte vijayante janāso yaṃ yudhyamānā avase havante / yo viśvasya pratimānaṃ babhūva yo acyutacyutsa janāsa indraḥ // Ibid., 2.12.9 Also vide, Ibid., 10.103.7
Sāyaṇa, Ibid., 2.12.9
bṛhaspate pari dīyā rathena rakṣohāmitrān apabādhamānaḥ / prabhañjantsenāḥ pramṛṇo yudhā jayannasmākamedhyavitā rathānām // Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 10.103.4
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 7.34
agniriva manyo tviṣitaḥ sahasva senānīrnaḥ sahure hūta edhi/ hatvāya śatrūnvi bhajasva veda ojo mimāno vi mṛdho nudasva// Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 10.84.2 Also vide, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 3.1.1
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 3.3.1
agnirno dūtaḥ pratyetu vidvān pratidahannabhiśastimarātim / sa cittāni mohayatu pareṣāṃ nirhastāṃśca kṛṇavajjātavedāḥ // Ibid., 3.2.1
Ibid., 13.1.28,29,31
athāto brahmaṇaḥ parimaro, yo ha vai brahmaṇaḥ parimaraṃ veda, paryenaṃ dviṣanto bhrātṛvyāḥ pari saptnā mriyante// Aitareya-brāhmaṇa , 8.5.5
Baudhāyana-śrauta-sūtra , 13.12
asminvasviti rāṣṭrāvagamanam/ ānuśūkānāṃ vrīhīṇāmāvraskajaiḥ kāmpīlaiḥ śṛtaṃ sārūpavatsamāśayati/ abhīvarteneti rathanemimaṇimayaḥsīsaloharajatatāmraveṣṭitaṃ hemanābhiṃ vāsitaṃ baddhvā sūtrotaṃ barhiṣi kṛtvā saṃpātavantaṃ pratyṛcaṃ bhṛṣṭīrabhīvartottamābhyāmācṛtati/ acikradadā tvā ganniti yasmādrāṣṭrādavaruddhastasyāśāyāṃ śayanavidhaṃ purodāśaṃ darbheṣūdake ninayati/ tato loṣṭena jyotirāyatanaṃ saṃstīrya kṣīraudanamaśnāti/ yato loṣṭastataḥ sambhārāḥ/ tisṛṇāṃ prātaraśite puroḍāśe hvayante// Kauśika-sūtra , 16.27-33
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 3.3.4
Keśava, Kauśika-sūtra , 16.27
anuśukā/ prathamānāṃ śukānāṃ lūnānāṃ paścājjātāni śukāni tato nivṛtāni vrīhayo’nuśukāḥ/ Dārila, Ibid., 16.28 Also vide, Keśava, Ibid.
rathacakrasya bāhyapṛṣṭistadavayavaṃ masyākāraṃ kṛtvā… etaiḥ tanmaṇiṃ veṣṭayitvā … nābhimaṇidvāraṃ suvarṇadvāraṃ kṛtvetyarthaḥ/ Dārila, Ibid., 16.29
śatrusenākāraṃ puroḍāśam/ Sāyaṇa, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 3.3
udakeṣu darbhān saṃstīrya tatra ninayet/ Sāyaṇa, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 3. 3
darbhānāstīrya maṃtrāṃteṣūdakena saha ninayati/ Dārila, Kauśika-sūtra , 16.30
Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa , 1.1.4.3, 1.2.1.2, 6.5.1.6
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 12.2.53
Kauśika-sūtra , 133.3
Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 6.6.1
Vide, Modak, B.R., op. cit., p.239
Ṛgveda-saṃhitā , 4.4, Taittirīya-saṃhitā , 1.2.14, Mai.S., 2.7, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 8.3-4, Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā , 13.9
Vide, Modak, B.R., op. cit., p. 239
Atharvaveda-pariśiṣṭa , 8.1.1-8.2.5
Ibid., 33.2.3-4
Kauśika-sūtra , 140.1-22
Pīyūṣakaṇikā, Ibid., 140.22
rohiṇyā sārdhamāsīta rajjupalyāni kārayet/ mṛgaśirasyaśvān bibhṛyātsāsya senā na riṣyati// Ibid., 1.9.6
Ibid., 1.9.6-7
punarvasvābhiyujjīta puṣyenaitāṃ prayojayet/ iṣīkāṃ chedayan rājā aśleṣāsu na riṣyati// Ibid., 1.9.8
Ibid.
Ibid., 1.9.9
toraṇāni ca saṃhanyuḥ phalakāni ca takṣayet/ …..uttarābhyāṃ ca hāvayet//Ibid., 1.9.10
hastena citrāmākāṅkṣennakṣatrasya parigraham/ anekadarśī syāccitrāyaṃ purā svāterabhiplavāt// Ibid., 1.10.1
Ibid.
svātau śiśūnniyojayejjavārthān rathavāhinaḥ/ Ibid., 1.10.2
pradatīn kārayan rājā viśākhāyāṃ na riṣyati/ lepayetpradatī rājā anūrādhāsu kṣatriyaḥ // Ibid., 1.10.3
khaḍgasya ca viṣāṇena gajasya ṛṣabhasya vā/ viśākhābhyāmabhiṣikto (rājā) pṛthivīmabhiśāsayet// Ibid., 1.44.4
Ibid., 1.10.3
trirātraṃ sārdhaṃ dīkṣayitvā āṣāḍhāsu vrataṃ caret/ abhijityabhiyujjīta śravaṇena cikīrṣatu // Ibid., 1.10.6
Ibid., 1.10.6
Ibid.
śatabhiṣaji bhiṣakkarma bhaiṣajyaṃ cātra kārayet/ prācīnaproṣṭhapadayoryāyād..//Ibid., 1.10.8
uttarābhyāmabhiyujjīta gṛheṣu revatyāṃ vaset/ vi senāṃ kārayedrājā aśvinyāṃ bharaṇīṣu ca// Ibid., 1.10.9
śraviṣṭhābhiḥ sṛjedrasān// Ibid., 1.10.7
Ibid., 1.10.8
Ibid., 1.10.9
Ibid.
khaḍgasya ca viṣāṇena jalena madhusarpiṣā / revatyāṃ kṣatriyaḥ snāto (rājā) pṛthivīmabhiśāsate// Ibid., 1.45.6