Social Message of the Upanishads

by Sanchita Kundu | 2020 | 29,269 words

This study deals with the ethical principles of human society as gleaned from the Upanishads: a category of ancient Sanskrit philosophical texts dealing with spiritual insights and meditation. Their teachings deal with gaining control over one’s senses in order to find and attain the ultimate goal of life. The universal vision of these Upanishads p...

Chapter 4.2 - Scheme of Education of the Upanishads

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At the out set of Vedic age there was no division of human race because all were the off springs of the immortal (amṛtasya putrāḥ), so there was no difference between the class of different professions such as fisherman, the slaves and the gamblers.

Manu said,

''All men are born (śūdra) by the first or physical birth, but become (dvija) by the second or spiritual birth''—

''sa yāti brahmanaḥ sthānaṃ brāhmaṇatvena dvijāḥ.
saṃskārapūtaḥ prathamo vedapūto dvitīyakaḥ''.^[1]

No one aquires the status of a brāhmin by birth. One who has reached the heighs of cultural purity and is conversant with the Vedas is fit to be called a brāhmin.

The education system of Vedic age was evolved from the then social system which was based on the staunch ethical, moral and spiritual understanding of the seers of that time. According to Vedic dictum all were created by God. There was no difference between the two human beings. Man was known by his actions or by his deeds. It was his profession by which he was recognised in the society and not by his birth. It was by their actions that the human families were divided into different Varṇa or classes.

According to Manu,

''A Brāhmaṇa can become a Śūdra if he is devoid of Brahmanic characteristics or qualities vice-versa a śūdra can become a Brāhmaṇa''—

''śūdro brāhmaṇatāmeti brāhmaṇaśceti sūdratāṃ kṣatriyājjātamevamtu vidyādvaiśyāttathaiva ca//''^[2]

So Brāhmaṇa must had the devotion in learning and dedication in teaching which could prove his signature of Brahmanism in reality to himself and to the society. An uneducated Brāhmaṇa, said Manu, was like a milkless cow, a deer made of leather or elephant made of wood—

''yathā kāṣṭhamayo hastī yathā carmamayo mṛgaḥ/
yaśca vipro'nadhīyānastrayaste nāma vibhrati// ''^[3]

The stricture over non study of Vedas was so stark and critical that according to Manu,

''A Brāhmaṇa who is omitting the study of Vedas, (and) devotes himself to other pursuits, soon becomes a śūdra along with the family ''—

''yo nadhītya dvijo vedamanyatra kurute śramaṃ/
sa jīvanneva śūdratvamāśu gacchati sānvayaḥ//''^[4]

Also,

“lead a life of poverty and shun worldly honour like poison''—

''sammānād brāhmaṇo nityamudvijet viṣādiva/
amṛtasyeva cākānkṣedavamānasya sarvadā//''^[5]

Chief duty of Brāhmaṇa was to become competent for teaching Vedas—

''sarvān parityajedarthān svādhyāyasya virodhinaḥ/
yathā tathā'dhyāpayaṇstu sā hyasya kṛtakṛtyatā//''^[6]

An ignorant Brāhmaṇa devoid of study of Vedas should not accept any smallest charity and if he did accept he would sink deeper and deeper in the quagmire of sin—

''tasmād vidvān vibhiyād yasmāt tasmāt pratigrahāt/
svalpakenāpya vidvān hi paṇke gauriva sīdati//''^[7]

Ṛgveda too confirmed Manu's opinion and declared that Men endowed with eyes and ears were alike, but they are unequal so far their mental propensities are concerned. The then great saint Śukrācārya too vehemently asserted the conclusion of Manu, '

'Not by birth are the Brāhmaṇas, Kṣatrias, Śūdra and Mlechas are separated but by virtue and work''.

Here he meant the word virtue for the knowledge and wisdom that one acquired thorough reading of Vedas, Śūtras, Scriptures and Purāṇas.

According to some, there are four Vidyās or sciences—

I. Trayī, the triple Veda
II. Ānvīkṣikī, logic and meta–physics
III. Daṇḍa-nīti, the science of government
IV. Vārtā, practical arts, such as agriculture, commerce, medicine, etc—

Manu^[8] adds a fifth viz,

V. ātmavidyā, knowledge of soul or of spiritual truth...—vidyā-vidyā vai dhiṣaṇā^[9].

Nothing gives us such insight as Vidyā; In spiritual sphere, it leads us to salvation, in the mundane spheres it leads us to all round progress and prosperity. The illumination given to us by Vidyā shatters, removes difficulties and enables us realize the true value of life. A person who does not possess the light of education, may be really described as blind. It was the conviction of ancient Indians that nothing could refine and develop human intellect except Vidyā. Power, efficiency, alacrity everything could be accelerated with the attainment of Vidyā. It nourishes us like mother, directs us to the proper path like the father, and gives us delight and comfort like wife (subhāṣitābalī).

Indian philosophy always regarded knowledge as the highest quality of man and with the help of that man can alone live happily. Manu says,

''neither by years (age) nor by grey hair, neither by wealth nor by friends, does one become great.''—

''na hāyanairna palitairna vittairna ca bandhubhiḥ/
ṛṣayaścakrire dharmaṃ yo'nūcānaḥ sa no mahān//''^[10]

He further said,

''Grey hair do not make a man old; a young man who has studied well, is alone considered to be really old by the learned gentry''—

''na tena vṛddho bhavoti jenāsya palitaṃ śiraḥ/
yo vai yuvāpyadhīyānastaṃ devāḥ sthaviraṃ viduḥ//''^[11]

Even a little study of the Vedas makes a twice–born reader stand in good stead in this world and the next—

''anena vidhinā'dhīto vedamantro dvijaṃ nayet.''^[12]

According to Cāṇakya king and learned both are not at an equal level of respect, and so the saying goes on as—

''svadeśe pūjyate rājā vidvān sarvatra pūjyate''.

The most striking feature of Indian civilization was that it had never been moulded by anything other than religion. In shaping of the Indian civilization, politics or economics or any other influences did not contribute or take any remarkable position or drew any graphic path in its advancement.

Religion as such had been singled out in the Hindu philosophy to wield the fundamental aspects of life such as social, political, ethical and etc. into a comprehensive theory and thus took a vital place in the formation of character of ancient Indians.

Hindu religion at that time became a composite and comprehensive theory of social, political, and economic life of the then people which practically made their attitude and behaviour to follow a theoretic path. Even the deep scientific contemplation and concentration on reality, space and universe had the religious inspiration in the mind of Vedic saints. In this ancient society Dharma consisted of ideals, ritual practices, and manner of social conducts of the people.

During Vedic period education meant all round development of human being which included physical, moral, ethical, intellectual and spiritual aspects. Vedic education rendered people to develop not only the material aspects of life but also spiritual prospect. At the early period of Vedic age education was provided through oral transmission from teacher to students. Teachers at this state of environment were treated with utmost respect and devotion as like as God.

In the opening of The Taittirīya Upaniṣad a remarkable prayer is observed. Teacher and disciple, both were sitting together and praying,

''Oh Brahma! please protect both of us equally. Endow us both with the fruits of knowledge in equal terms, so that we could both become eligible to extract vigour out of the acquired knowledge. May our schooling be fully energised and brilliant, let our acquired schooling be illustrious.May we not hate each other... ''

''om saha nāvabatu, saha nau bhunaktu, saha vīryaṃ karvāvahai/ tejasvi nāvadhītamastu, mā vidviṣāvahai//''^[13]

As its first step, Ṛgveda, under its spiritual and ethical compulsion used to conduct teaching of Veda through prescribed pronunciation which the pupils had to listen to as Śruti by means of regulated recitation and had to commit in memory.

''vedādhyanaṃ sarvaṃ gurvadhyanapūrvakam/
vedādhyanasāmānyād yathādhunādhyayam //''.^[14]

Disciple listens to the Veda from the preceptor and then disciple of the disciple hears from disciple who comes to be his preceptor. Thus goes on the process of learning by listening only. Hence the Veda is known as Śruti.

Because at that time teaching was taught by pronunciation of the teacher. The system of technique of writing neither evolved nor was invented at that Vedic period. Moreover, only this believes was in vogue during that period of time that Śruti or Veda only did appeal to ear and not to the eyes. Kumārīla^[15] states:

''That knowledge of truth is worthless which has been acquired from the Veda, if the Veda not been rightly comprehended or it has been learnt from writing.''

Thus, the perfect recitation of the text of Veda was the first step of learning of Ṛgveda.

''Jaimini in his Purva-Mimānsā Śūtra^[16], issued the dictum 'Vākyaniyamat' which meant that the words of mantras must be recited in prescribed manner to achieve their full fruit.''

Correct and perfect recitation of texts in orderly manner had a spiritual efficacy of its own. Spiritualism did flow out of the Text if recited under strict observance of order of the words, but slightest lapse in uttering a letter or word of the Vedic mantra would bring catastrophic disaster and ruin on the part of the teacher—

''mantrohīnaḥ svarato vaṛnato vā mithyāprayukto na tamarthamāha /
sa vāgvajro yajamānaṃ hinasti yathendraśatrūḥ svaratoparādhāt//.''^[17]

So Ṛgveda had greatly emphasized the supreme need of understanding the inner meaning of mantra which could be perfectly acquired only through constant concentration on and contemplation of Veda.

During such contemplation Brāhmaṇas achieved enlightenment. And then the realisation of the inner meaning of the Mantra suddenly and forcefully came out from their mouth in the form of speech (vacham avādiṣhuḥ) like frogs that used to come into activity by the clouds after a year's of slumber, and It is this enlightenment which fits the pupils who were called Brahmana vratacārin [vratacārinaḥ].

This was explained by Yāska in his nirukta as abruvannḥ, i.e. maintaining the vow of silence for the task of expounding the sacred texts.

Again it was asked ''...what is the source of Vāk or Speech?

Speech or Word of God (Brahmayam Vāchaḥ). It is the dawn of Ṛta, Supreme Knowledge, which alone leads to the comprehension of Vāk''.^[18] Again it had been asked by the Veda that he who did not understand the real meaning of truth behind the Ṛk and Akṣara (word and letter) where all Gods did stay thence it was futile to merely reciting and repeating the Ṛks. And it meant that he was only bearer of a burden, the block head (sthanurayam bhāraharaḥ), who had studied Veda not understanding its meaning.

Learning without understanding the meaning was like a dry wood which would never blaze. The ideal of this learning was thus realizing of Truth. The Veda was useless for him who only recited the Veda without realising an iota of its inner meaning. When supreme knowledge would dawn on one, then alone would he realise the meaning of Vāk, the ultimate Word or Ᾱtmā.

It was said that students would touch teacher's feet in the first place and then sit on right and left side of the teacher. The Guru would start his teaching uttering the word, ''OM''. He pronounced loudly and precisely so that every word could be heard distinctly and in proper accent just to overcome the difficulty of pronunciation of Vedic words especially the final and initial letters.

The students were taught through this method and it was called Śiksā, but in case of Sandhi of any word, Guru used to test the knowledge of the student and then explained the matter for the understanding of the student. The student could continue reading only when he had explained clearly and of course with the permission of teacher only.

The students were not allowed to leave the place of learning until or unless the day's lesson was completed.At the end of every day’s lesson students should touch the feet of the teacher and then be allowed to be retreated.

In fact education at that time was religion-oriented and teachers were regarded as spiritual fathers. Teachers had to bring up his pupils like his son. He had to give the student food when he was hungry, and to treat him when he was ill. There was no difference between son and pupil.

It was not that the teachers gave hollow sermon to the students and did not follow themselves the path they preached but on the contrary they did follow what they preached the students. Wisdom would lose its relevance if morality was negated from it. Virtuous duties were regarded as gems. Morality of highest order was the order of the day. A simple way of life was marked for the students and celibacy was counted a sublime trait of character of the then age.

The following prayer, regarded as the most outstanding intellectual and spiritual aspiration, exemplified the character of a student—

''asato mā sadgamaya, tamaso mā jyotirgamaya mṛtyormā amṛtam gamaya.''^[19]

''Lead me from untruth to Truth;
From darkness to Light;
From mortality to Immortality''.

This mantra of Bṛhadāranayaka Upaniṣad reminds the mankind, the essence of education, It is said',

''prāk ca tathābhūtatmajñānāt pravartamānaṃ śāstraṃ avidyāvatviṣayatvaṃ nātivartate''^[20]

The only entity that is real in the world is Brahman. The knowledge about Brahman meaning the Self is real knowledge. The only way to get rid of ignorance is to acquire knowledge about Brahman or Self. Since the aim of all the scriptures is to overcome ignorance, they have to concentrate upon the task of acquisition of knowledge about Self.

Through atmadarśanam one realises one's identification with the Immortal and thus understands, (that) the individual soul is nothing but the manifestation of that Immortality. This is the ultimate knowledge that the Vedic seers parted with their disciples under the then prevailing education system.

Knowledge was accorded as supreme achievement, because the main aim of the education was spiritual consciousness, character building, moral and ethical escalation to higher stage of mind and it aimed at behaviour according to humanitarian etiquette. So the Kaṭhopaniṣad’s clarion call to humanity is to Arise, Awake—

''uttisṭhata jāgrata prāpya varān nibodhata/ kṣurasya dhārā niśitā duratyayā durgaṃ pathastat kavayo vadanti// ''^[21]

''Arise awake, go to the best seer, the knower of Supreme soul realise yourself to be Brahma, because the path of Divine knowledge is extremely difficult to acquire as it is like the sharpened edge of a blade''.

In the Vedic period āśramas were categorised according to specialised subjects. Vedas, Upaniṣads, Vedānta, Astrology, Astronomy, etc. were regarded as special subjects and were kept reserved for the teaching of Brāhmaṇas. The art and skill for war and armoury were taught only to Kṣatriyas. Vaiśyas were not taught and Śūdras were not allowed to get admission into the āśramas.

Women were admitted into the āśramas along with their male counterparts if they had really any. Abstract knowledge was reserved only for talented students. Vedic period witnessed a glorious educational tradition. It was scientific, selective, purposeful and pragmatic.

The relation between the teacher and disciple was extremely cordial during millenniums period of the Veda. It was so much cordial that to interpret the philosophy of the Vedas it had been segregated from the whole literature and named under the heading, 'Upaniṣad', the meaning of which is explained as being taught by sitting near his preceptor.

As the word Upaniṣad, was verb based so its wordmeaning was very much specifically expressive. So it was enough, as it was, that salvation could be attained just by listening and conceiving Upaniṣad while other activities were immaterial or unnecessary for the purpose of attaining total spiritualism. It enlightened the heart of his disciple with the light of wisdom.

It was said in the later period—

''akhanḍamandalākāraṃ vyaptaṃ yena carācaraṃ/
caksurunmīlitaṃ yena tasmai śṛi gurave namaḥ // ''^[22]

In the Atharvaveda the relation between the teacher and student had been very clearly described through the following mantra—

''ācārya upanayamāna brahmacāriṇaṃ kṛnute gharvamentaḥ /
taṃ rātṛstisra udare vibharti taṃ jātaṃ draṣtumabhisaṃyanti devāḥ//''^[23]

During Vedic period all disciples as a rule of law had to maintain very strict and rigid path of celibacy.

Yājñavalkya was born and brought up under such guidance and strict principle of celibacy. He was a very famous and universally acclaimed brahmajñanī of his time and was a teacher to the core of his heart and for this reason he could express the following opinion in the royal court of King Janaka in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad—The teacher must not accept any gift from his students until or unless he was completely satisfied by infusing his entire knowledge to his students.

It was the only motive of the teacher of the time to clear out all the doubts and confusions from the mind of the student and to help him to acquire extreme limit of knowledge—

''sa hobāca yājñavalkaḥ pitā me'manyata nānanuśiṣya hareteti.''^[24]

And due to this reason it is mentioned in the Upaniṣad that teacher should be regarded like a father. Teacher, like father used to direct properly the right path to the students and thus helped them to build up ideal morality and consequently engrafted social responsibility in his mind.

The first and foremost obligation and duty on the part of student was that that he had to surrender completely to his guru in all respects. So it was said in Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad—

''yasya deve parā bhaktiryathā deve tathā gurau/ tasyaite kathitā hyarthāḥ prakāśante mahātmanaḥ prakāśante mahātmanaḥ/''^[25]

In Praśna Upaniṣad it was found that disciples like Sukeśa, Satyakāma, Saurayaonī etc went to the teacher Pippalāda with devotion and modesty—

''sukeśā ca bhāradvājaḥ, saivyaśca Satyakāmaḥ …pippalādamupasannyāḥ''.^[26]

During Upaniṣadic era all around ascension of morality and ethics was the motive force that energised the education to bloom to its utmost.

In the Chāndyogyapaniṣad it was focussed that when Nārada appeared before Sanat kumara for the purpose of having lesson, he apprised him of his previous subjects that he learned during his celibacy—

''ṛgvedaṃ bhagabo'dhyami yajurvedaṃ sāmavedamātharvaṇaṃ caturthamitihāsapurāṇaṃ paṇcamaṃ vedānāṃ vedaṃ pitryaṃ rāśiṃ daivaṃ nidhiṃ vākovākyamekāyanaṃ devavidyāṃ brahmavidyāṃ bhūtavidyāṃ kṣatravidyāṃ nakṣatravidyāṃ sarpadevajanavidyāmetadbhagabo'dhyemi''.^[27]

Yājñavalkya and Maitreyī’s episode was an example of how husband became a teacher—

''sa hovāco yājñavalkyah priyā vai khalu no bhavatī satī priyamabṛdhanta tarhi bhavatyetadvyākhyāsyāmi te vyācakṣāṇasya tu me nididhyāsasveti''.^[28]

At the end of learning in Aśrama all students had to take an oath during convocation. It was found in Taittirīya Upaniṣad that after the completion of learning and on the eve of entering into family life, as a rule of prevailing educational system of that time and also out of compulsion of the then socio–religious custom of the society, teacher advised them—

''satyaṃ vada,dharmaṃ cara, svādhyāyānmā pramadah, ācāryāya priyaṃ dhanamāhṛtya prajātantuṃ mā vyavacchetsīh. satyānna pramaditavyaṃ. dharmānna pramaditavyaṃ. kuśalānna pramaditavyaṃ. bhūtyai na pramaditavyaṃ. svādhyāyapravacanābhyāṃ na pramaditavyaṃ.''^[29]

Always speak the truth. You should observe Dharma. Do not give up study of Veda. Never be unmindful regarding truth, never be unmindful towards duty, indifferent in self defence, do not agitate to perform wholesome job and must do that. It was also advised—

''devapitṛkāryābhyāṃ na pramaditavyaṃ. mātṛdevo bhava. pitṛdevo bhava. ācāryadevo bhava. ātithidevo bhava. yānyanavadyāni karmāṇi.tāni sevitavyāni.''^[30]

Never be unmindful to perform rituals for forefathers and concerned gods. Treat mother like goddess, treat father like god. Treat teacher and guest like gods. Take up graceful job and not others.

They also added little more in their sermon to the students—

''śraddhayā deyaṃ.aśradhayā'deyaṃ. śriyā deyaṃ. hriyā deyaṃ. bhiyā deyaṃ. saṃvidā deyam.''^[31]

Donate with respect, not in disdainful mind. Give away in decent way in shame, fearfully and with a mind of friendship. This is ruling of duties, advice of teachers, this is dictum of Veda or the secret of Veda; this is the command of god whom to worship and serve—obey and follow these.

This was the system and procedure by which teachers energised the consciousness of students which was regarded as the basic objectives and aim of imparting education to students.

The teacher taught students—'

'dāmyata datta dayadhamiti''.^[32]

Be constrained in action, be charitable and be kind hearted.

In ancient India knowledge meant absolute. Absolute knowledge meant absolute realisation of Self and the understanding that the individual self was nothing but the manifestation of the Supreme Self. Hence the ancient saints suggested in Iśa Upaniṣad to overcome that hurdles through this poetical verse—

''iśā vāsyamidaṃ sarvaṃ yat kiñca jagatyāṃ jagat/
tena tyaktena bhunjīthā mā gṛdhah kasyasvid dhanaṃ//''.^[33]

Whatever we see and hear in this universe is covered by Omnipotent, Omnipresent, ever Pervading Supreme Being. No place in this world was detached from Him or without Him. Lord Kṛṣna told Arjuna, the representative of mundane world, that you have to work. But do not expect the fruit of your work.

The message is so widely encompassing and inclusive that It has leaded millions and millions people in the past and will be leading millions and millions in future and the present cannot be anything but the predecessor of the coming days.

The Sūtra period was remarkably important from the angle of constructive and creative aspect of ancient Indian education system. Different subjects such as Geometry, Algebra, Astrology, Astronomy, Physiology, and Grammar were included in the curriculum of education system of that time and the system reached at the highest point of development at that period.

But the remarkable matter of Sūtra system was that it was very much indebted to thousand years of time tested education system of Upaniṣad's era. The sole objective of that period of education was character formation, development of personality, protection of ancient culture and last but not least adherence to the belief of reality of Absolute Truth.

The then environment and system of education were very much conducive for the all encompassing growth of human activities at that period of time. As a new Brahmanic Education system appeared on the horizon of Vedic age, it helped a lot in the development of human character and as well as individuality in human beings.

The basic and primary aim of education of ancient India was to instil into the mind of pupils a spirit of honesty, truthfulness, courage, goodness and the glory of Supreme Soul and ultimately guide pupils along the path of realisation of Self. The Ṛgveda states that a man is superior to other beings not because he has an extra hand or eye but because of his mind and intellect are sharpened and rendered more efficient by education. As it has been said that—the intellect of a human being is capable of penetrating the most difficult and unapproachable place where even air or the sun rays fails to penetrate.

Education not only transforms man into a better one but leads to the most illumined path of realisation of Self and also helps him to understand rightful relation with the nature. It was the most precious and outstanding contribution of Vedic education system that it had given birth to intellectual men like Brahmagupta who was the first in the world to use zero as a number, Bhaskarāchārya is still today considered to be the finest and best brain had ever been come down on earth, Barāhamihira an outstanding scholar of Astrology, Śuśruta, the first medical surgeon of the world, Dhanantvarī, the greatest Aurvedic scientist-physicist of the world had ever produced and the great poet-dramatist Kālidasa and many more worthy scholars were there to mention whom thousands of years time tested Vedic education system had given birth to the mankind.

They were the brightest men of science and literature in the star-studded constellation of wisdom in the sky of India. Vedic system of education bears the Truth of both the world–material and spiritual.

In those days there were no caste restriction for choosing any profession.^[34] Any one could choose any discipline according to one’s own merit and aptitude. Generally the following of hereditary profession was in vogue at that time and thus heighten the efficiency of the trade and in consequence society flourished and thus there was economic growth of the country as a whole.

It was noticed that during Vedic period military as a profession was very much popular among the Ᾱryas i.e. the civilised class and in fact the military and defence related matters they acquired were only to subjugate the non Ᾱryas or savage to establish supremacy over the land they enjoyed after victory over them. The Arthaśāstra^[35] states that every village ought to be able to defend itself.

There were no military school or college as such but the voluntary assistance of senior war veterans used to undertake the military training of juniors of the land. Many villages were exempted from taxation on agreeing to supply a certain quota to the then armed force of the land.

At that time Takṣaśīlā had enjoyed the most magnetic attraction for Brāhmaṇas and Kṣatriyas from all over the country for its art and technique in military science. Budding warriors of that time congregated in a flock to achieve mastery in the military profession.

At one military centre there were 103 princes receiving military training in the different branches of military art i.e elephant lore, horsemanship, cavalry, training, and use of weapons.

Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra contains many references to military training. In 500BC many enterprising military captains took military training as profession and started private military training classes and used to supply trained soldiers to kings and in return they received lands, money, horses in return as rewards.

Atharvaveda is regarded as the origin of medical science of India and Medical science and surgery was very much advanced at that time. Practical training in surgery and pharmacy of students and teachers were in vogue at that period.

Ayurvedic science was so much advanced that Caraka observed that it was impossible for an individual to acquire all round efficiency in that subject. The time period for learning the subject was at least eight years for any individual students.

It is supposed that the practice of medicine was prohibited without approval of kings. The King was considered all-powerful and incurring King’s wrath could invite a death penalty. Manu says—

''mṛtyusca vasati krodhe sarvatejomayo hi saḥ /''^[36]

Hence anathorization by the King was essential to continue any service in the state.

During convocation the successful medical students were addressed to follow a very high medical ideal of professional etiquette and conduct. India was famous for its medical skill throughout the ancient period. Indian doctors could perform and undertake surgical operation for cataract, hydrocele, abscesses, extraction of dead embryos, and etc.—

''tasminnāgacchati lokanāthe garbhastha jantoriva śalyakṛntaḥ/ nūnaṃ mamāṃgānyacirādanāryaḥ śastraiḥ sitaiśchetsyati mānavendraḥ// ''^[37]

Like astronomy, astrology, algebra, mathematics and geometry medicine too took a grand and very important place in the history of Vedic system of education. It was the Vedic system of science that took surgery to such a state when Suśrut had the technical alacrity under his total control for performing any type of difficult and complicated operation on patient when mostly other parts of the world remained in complete darkness about the medical science of Vedic India.

Ethics and morality were regarded as the two cardinal points that were to be borne in mind by the medical practitioners and as such were the guiding force to the budding practitioners of the Vedic age.

In the following passage Caraka Saṃhitā had very elaborately stated some ethical and moral points for the fresh entrants into the profession of medicine to bear in mind while treating the patients—

''When on getting permission, you begin to practise, you ought to make an effort for an adequate honorarium to your teacher. You should aim at the welfare of Brāhmanas, cows and all other beings with a view to win practice, prosperity fame here and in heaven hereafter. Every day you should continuously and whole heartedly try to promote the health of patients. Even if your own life is in danger, you should not neglect your patients. You should not entertain the evil thought about the wealth or wives of others. Your dress should be modest and should not be foppish. Avoid drinking, do not commit a sin, nor help one who is committing it. Your speech should be smooth, polish, truthful and to the point. Taking all parts into consideration, you should make a deliberate endeavour to increase your knowledge and instruments. Do not give medicine to those whose disease is definitely diagnosed not to be curable, or to those who are about to die, or to women, if their husbands or guardians are not present. Do not accept any fees from ladies without the assent of their husbands and guardians. When you enter a patient’s room, all your attention should be concentrated on the patient, his expression, movements and medicines, to the exclusion of everything else. You must treat as strictly confidential of all information about the patient and his family.''

Ancient Indian education, like other things, was the outcome of Indian theory of religion of self which stood under the illumined understanding of the omnipresence of Brahma. Education became a means of realisation of self. Certainly not for attaining efficacy for handling the objective materials for sense satisfaction.

Its main objective concern was to steer clear the darkness of the inner world. So the pursuit of the subjective knowledge rather than the objective physical entity was the main concern of the Education at that time. The education of ancient India asked for the emancipation, a complete freedom from the bondage which called for an absolute Mukti that meant the total cessation of misery coming out of attachment of any kind.

''As long as there is the identification of the Ātman with the body and mind, senses and so on there is ego arising out of it and we remain subject of law of karma—to birth, death, and rebirth''.^[38]

But when and howone is to realise the reality of existance of that Unknown? Here is the path. Millennia tested method called, 'Yogā'—as the science of sciences and the art of arts, a systematic procedure for building of self by disciplined concentration and meditation, an unique and unparallel ancient Indian system of psychological education for the guidance of Mind to take a route march for reaching the goal of Supra mental World of Super Consciousness—lying beyond Māyā. Yogā was defined by the ancient Ṛṣis as 'Citta-vṛtti-nirodha [nirodhaḥ]'.

It is said in the Śṛmad Bhagavatam that when Kapila was ready to renounce everything then his mother Devahūti begged him to impart her knowledge that would lead to salvation. He taught her the highest wisdom that wouldlead to liberation. This knowledge was known as Sāṃkhya.

''The aim of Sāṃkhya is to impart knowledge of the distinction between Puruṣa and Prakṛti. The goal is to free man from the three types of miseries and lead towards Kaivalya, Liberation.''^[39]

Yogā as such was to control and stop the mind’s natural tendency to drift towards the objective world. Mind is being contaminated by the outside matter continuously and regularly without any break, and then how to negate it?

An educated person under the control of yogā could desist the mind from being controlled by sense organs and thus could stop the process of contamination of mind. Education is a process of control of Mind.

During the period of Ṛgveda and thereafter there was no caste system in the society and the education was not totally theoretical and academic but was related to aptitude and inclination of the individual. It was a part of liberal education as it has been noted in the description of Ṛṣis of Ṛgveda: We different men have different aptitudes and pursuits (dhiyo vi vratani).

The carpenter (Takṣa) seeks something that is broken; the physician (Bhiṣag) a patient (rutam); the priest (Brahma) some one who will sacrifice (Sunvantam)—

''nānānaṃ vā u no dhiyo vita brāni janānām/ takṣā riṣtaṃ ruṭaṃ bhiṣagabrakṣā sunvantamicchantīdrāyendo pari srava//''^[40]

I am a poet (Karura), my father is a physician, my mother a grinder of corn (upala-prakṣinī)—

''kārurahaṃ tato bhiṣagupalaprakṣiṇī nānā/ nānādhiyo vasūyavo'nu gā iva tasthimendrāyendo pari srava //''^[41]

In the passage it was revealed that, the highest philosophy yoked to the humble craft of grinding corn in Ṛṣi and his mother, while his father was pursuing the useful art of healing as physician.

The educative value of such mental and physical attitude is explained in Śatapatha Brāhmṇa^[42] which points out that it was meant to instil humanity and renunciation into the mind of pupils. The decision to add this sort of specific technique of training of mind was the conclusive result of millennium old experience of the Vedic saints.

Hence under the spiritual compulsion of their disciplined educative mind they included the system of begging as a subject of learning in school’s curriculum not only for the financial benefit of the institute but mainly to nip in the bud the ego among the students at the very green early age of their life.

In such scheme of Education, mere study as such occupies a subsidiary place. The Upaniṣads mention three steps of process of education called (1) Śravaṇa, (2) Manana and (3) Nididhyāsana^[43]. Śravaṇa is listening to words or texts as they are uttered by the teacher. It is the system of oral tradition by which India had built up her whole culture through ages.

Preceptor, his disciple and disciples of the disciple-thus fromed a group or sampradāya and following this order various branches emerged—

''śiṣyaiḥ praśiṣyaistacchiṣyairvedāste śākhino’bhavan''^[44]

'Śruti' was regarded as the repository of wisdom at that time and were made in the form as Mantra or Sūtra to describe maximum meaning in minimum words of which OM was the most concrete expression that could be cited as a striking example. It contained within itself a world of meaning.

Knowledge at that time was not in vogue to keep in writing.

Veda considered learning as realisation and not the process reading. Śankara in his Viveka-Chudāmani defines that Śravaṇa as listening to the instruction of teacher and knowing the primary truth that the Self is to be differentiated from Non-Self appearing in various forms. To identify with non-Self is Ignorance, causing Bondage. Bondage is removed by knowledge.

With respect to this, it is to be noted that practices and regulations exercised under such compulsion was only to prepare pupils for internal attributes such as mental, moral and ethical conditions fit to be receptive to the teachings of highest knowledge, the knowledge of the Brahman making the core subject matter of the Upaniṣads.

The Upaniṣads^[45] strictly directed that before being taught of highest knowledge of Brahma the seeker must attain the unperturbed calmness of mind he is to be (Śanta)^[46], self-restrained (dānta), self-denying (Uparata)^[47] patient (titikṣu)^[48] and samāhita (having concentration of mind). In addition to this the earnest seeker of Brahma had to comply with purity of food and as consequently purity of nature (sattvaśuddhi)^[49].

The path to get the ultimate knowledge was educating the mind and the goal was to realise, ''Who am I'' and that was through Yājñavalkya’s advice that he gave to her dearest wife Maitreyī, ''Śravaṇa, Manana and nidhidhyāsana''—listening, contemplating and concentrating—

''ātmā vā are draṣtavyah śratovyo mantavyo nididhyāsitavyo maitrayyātmani khalvare dṛṣte śrute mate vigñate idaṃ sarvaṃ viditam.''^[50]

It was obvious in the Vedic system of education that the entire period of studentship was a period of preparation for acquiring the ultimate knowledge i.e realisation of the existence of the Absolute.

It became more obvious from the parting address of the teacher to the students on the eve of their stepping into the life of house holdership after the completion of their brahmacharya period—

''Say what is true! Do thy duty! Do not neglect the study of the Veda! After presenting gift to thy teacher, take care that the thread of thy race not broken! Do not swerve from the Truth, from duty! Do not neglect your health! Do not neglect your worldly prosperity! Do not neglect the learning and teaching of the Veda! ''

''Do not neglect the (sacrificial) works due to the Gods and Manes! Let thy mother be to thee like unto a god! Let thy father be to thee like unto a god! Let thy preceptor be to thee like unto a god! let thy guest be to thee like unto a god! Whatever actions are blameless, those to be regarded, not others. What ever given should be given with faith, not without faith–with joy, with modesty, with fear, from sense of duty.''

''This my admonition. This the teaching. This the true Purport (Upaniṣad) of the Veda. This the command. Thus should you observed. Thus this be observed.''

As the individual was the chief concern of this education, so education was also necessarily and ought to be individual. So for rendering highest order of qualitative education of such a degree, it was necessitated for the establishment of an environment away from the din and bustle of social activities of crowded locality.

Conceiving and sensing the magical effect of nature on the mind of students, perhaps the picture of 'Śāntiniketana' reflected on the mind of Rabindra Nath Tagore, as he described his reflection in the graphic words:

''In these forests, though there was human society, there was enough of open space, of aloofness; there was no jostling. Still this aloofness did not produce inertia in the Indian mind; rather it rendered it all brighter.

''As did the Vedic Ṛṣis, lord Buddha also showered his teaching in the many woods of India''.

''The current of civilization that flowed from its forests inundated the whole of India''.

The system of education through which the ultimate

knowledge that ought to be acquired by was meant for the whole humanity at large. 'One thing is certain', said Max Muller, ''namely, that there is nothing more primitive, more ancient than the hymns of Ṛgveda, whether in India or the whole Aryan world. Being Aryan in language and thought, the Ṛgveda is the most ancient of our books.''^[51]

According to our orthodox thinking Ṛgveda is the fountain head of Hindu civilization. It is the seed and source on which Indian religion and culture had thrived on through ages and from which many streams had derived and flowed to know the reality of existence and find out the true path of salvation for mankind.

Broadly speaking the ancient Vedic philosophy laid down the foundation stone of Hindu maxim, ''plain living and high thinking.'' Indian Ṛsis were busy in building of spiritual and intellectual monuments for progress of the mankind.

When highest knowledge was acquired by these seers and was revealed then question of conservation and parting of such knowledge arose, and hence one system was felt to develop gradually so that this knowledge could be transmitted to posterity.

So as a matter of fact, as every Ṛṣi was necessarily a teacher would thus impart the knowledge that he personally had mastered over to his son. In consequence of that each family of Ṛṣi would thus start functioning as Vedic school and would start admitting pupils for imparting and instilling the literature and the text he had in his possession into them.

During the time of Ṛgveda, the relation between the teacher and the taught were well founded and established as well. The methods of education was necessarily varied according to the intellectual and mental capacity of each and every student. Self realization by means of tapas was naturally only for the very selected pupils.

During Vedic period the then education system was fixed and standardised according to certain universally accepted and established moral and ethical rules, accompanied by regular practices.

The Atharvaveda was the only Veda which very explicitly extolled, exalted, and expounded the most basic system of education system and institution of Brahmacarya which formed the foundation of entire structure of Indian thought and life. Its subjects and courses might vary according to the objective condition but there would not certainly be any change in the methodology of training of mind and in the system of execution of discipline, laid down since very long past, under any circumstances.

At this age the students were under the strict disciplinary order of some instruction that they were supposed to obey. And this regulation could be traced back into the passage in Aitareya Ᾱranyaka at the end of its fifth Ᾱranyaka.

The instruction was as it has been laid dawn in the following—the teacher and pupil should not stand, nor walk, nor lie down, nor sit on the couch; but they should both sit on the ground.

Education of women were never denied in Vedic education system and in its social structure. The education system followed a consistent pattern of keeping relation between student and teachers in perpetuity. Separate lodging system was there for female students which were called Chātrī Śālā i.e., Ladies Hostel.

According to Gautama Dharmaśūtra, on completion of the education the teachers must be offered a fee (Dakṣiṇā); only after the students were allowed to go. It was noteworthy that under diverse circumstances, teachers were allowed to perform sacrifices, to teach and to accept from all four castes—vidyānte gururarthena nimaṇtryaḥ^[52]

Having studied various branches of sacred learning the student was to procure the fee for his teachers, according to his status. During distress and adversity, the teacher could accept the Dakṣinā from an Ugra or a Śūdra—

kṛtvā vidyā yāvatīṃ śaknuyād vedadakṣiṇamāhareddharmato yathāśakti^[53]

However, the magnanimous education system in ancient India imposed ban on any stipulated tuition fees for any student irrespective of any caste. Not only this, it was also aprevailing order of the age that even the private teachers were not allowed to refuse any student because they were too poor to pay their fees. In fact, in those days, the education was almost kept free. In the educational system, at that time, moral training was looked upon as cornerstone of the society. The building of character of the student was considered as the basic and most fundamental stepping stone for the elevation of student life to manhood and that is why it was deemed as one of the essential objects of education.

Manu stated—

vedāstyāgaśca yajñāśca niyamāśca tapānsi ca/
na vipraduṣṭabhāvasya siddhiṃ gacchati karhicit//^[54]

When a budding young man desired to master any art of his choice, with the permission of his relative, he should go to the masters house and stay there as an apprentice for learning the trade of his choice. The student should stay with his teacher. Teacher should keep him in his house and treat the student as his son.

If one did forsake the master, who instructed him properly, deserved punishment even corporal punishment. The teacher used to enjoy the profit that accrued from student’s work—''tatra karma ca yat kuryādācāryasyaiva tat phalaṃ''^[55]

In ancient India teaching was considered and accepted as holy service of the brāhmaṇa and they were under social binding to discharge their duties irrespective of consideration of fees. To bring education within the reach of poor class, the then social system did not only allow the poor students to beg, but also uplifted begging to a system under compulsion for every students and was regarded as an important duty of students.

The system was formulated and conceived with a high degree of fore site to wipe out the status consciousness among the different classes of students and created a very balanced secular system of environment among students and teachers as well.

At that time teachers were regarded to discharge their duties towards their students with a missionary zeal of self sacrifice for the betterment of pupil. At that time social thinking about rendering education was absolutely based on extremely high standard of moral and ethical value, because education was genuinely regarded as the only foundation for future generations.

The curriculum, the environment, the relation between students and teachers, all these matters were fixed so well to the surroundings that it impelled students to go for the higher study. The society realised that Vidyādāna or the gift in the form of education was to be the best of gifts, possessing a higher religious efficacy than even the gift of land.

Religion had great hold over the public mind in ancient time. Society was always anxious to help the cause of free education in a various ways. It was considered to be the greatest of sins, if a student goes away without a morsel of food from the door at midday—

''strīṇāṃ pratyācaksāṇāṃ samāhito brahmacārī iṣṭaṃ dattaṃ hutaṃ prajāṃ paśūn brahmavacarsamannāddaṃ vṛṇkte…''^[56]

In ancient India, well to do persons were expected to pay maximum to the teachers. Government gave them land grants and pensions and helped them generously. Governments, kings, landlords, all and one, helped the cause of learning directly and indirectly in ancient India. Laws were so framed as to help and to enhence the glory of learning.

During the period of thousands of years agothe then seers and ṛṣis did consider Jñāna or the knowledge power as the third eye of man and according to them, it was an understanding that this third eye gave insight into all affairs and taught how to act—

''jñanaṃ tṛtīyaṃ manujasya netraṃ tattvārthavilokadakṣam.''^[57]

Nothing gives us such an unfailing insight as Vidyā—

''nāsti vidyā samaṃ caksuḥ, nāsti satyasamaṃ tapaḥ.''^[58]

In comparison to Western education system which was tuned to acquire objective materials for the satisfaction of physical urge, ancient ideals of Indian education were more compatible, ethically or morally.

Upaniṣads reflect a well planned system of education. The ceremony of Upanayana or initiation after which the boy was entitled to begin his study was not prevalent in the Ṛgvedic period.

The student acquired full moral and spiritual training by his constant association with his preceptor.

''tad vijñārthaṃ gurumevāvighacchet''.^[59]

There was no public school. However there were various instances of son being trained by his father. We may refer to Taittrīya Upaniṣad where we see Bhṛgu the son of Varuṇa approaching his father with the request to train him:

''Bhṛgurvai Vāruniḥ Varuṇaṃ pitaramupasasāra. Adhīhi bhagavo Braṃheti''.^[60]

We may also mention Uddālaka teaching his son Śvetaketu.^[61]

In a passage of Taittirīyopaniṣad^[62] the educational policy in the period of Upaniṣads has been reflected. The aim of education was to make a good human being.

In the Taittirīyopaniṣad we find preceptor advising his disciple when after attaining knowledge student is about to go back to his abode. The teacher says—speak the truth–''satyaṃ vada.'' People following the path of truth will succeed in the long run. It is truth that triumphs ultimately. Teacher says—''dharmaṃ cara''. Dharma does not mean religion only. It is some noble principles of life. Following those righteous ways of life one may live happily in the world.

It has been said in the Mahābhārata—

''dhāraṇād dharmamityāhuḥ dharmo dhārayate prajāḥ.''^[63]

The sage says—svādhyāyāmā pramadaḥ. You should study devotedly. The core of scriptures will make one's mind, pure and calm, it is expected. This will make life along with surrounding beautiful.

Teacher says you learn properly and impart your knowledge to others. Proper knowledge of a teacher is very much required. So that he may build a healthy and learned society. An efficient teacher can make a society where attitude and nature of the persons will be properly built and expressed.

The society will be full of men in the perfect sense of the term. So sages advised—

''svādhyāyapravacanābhyāṃ mā pramiaditavyam''.

A society can not be peaceful if parents are not taken proper care of. A society can not be a place of living if proper respect is not shown to the preceptor. Guests are to be entertained. In India guests are most respected in the house. He is respected as god.

Hence advice of the sage was—

''mātṛdevo bhava, pitṛdevo bhava, ācāryadevo bhava, atithidevo bhava''.

Treat you mother, father, teacher and guest as god.

These teachings are to be followed if one is to grow up as a ideal human being.

Sage advises to do what is to be praised by the mankind. Do not do otherwise.

''yānyanāvadyāni karmāṇi tāni sevitavyāni. no itarāṇi''.

It is the great lesson to be learnt.

The core of education that has been represented in Upaniṣads is to make life ideal. The sages desired to make man in the true sense of the term. It reminds us of what Swami Vivekananda held ''Expansion is life, construction is death. Love is life, hatred is death''.^[64]