Chapter 2a - Ashoka the great (273 B.C.–232 B.C.)

Ashoka, one of the greatest emperors of India, reigned over most of the present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire stretched from existing Pakistan and Afganistan in the West, to the modern Bangladesh and the Indian State of Assam in the east, and as far south as northern Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Ashoka, popularly known as Mahamati Ashoka (Ashoka, the great) was a great Indian emperor belonging to Maurya Dynasty. He conquered the kingdom of Kalinga for the first time in his dynasty. The capital of his kingdom was Pataliputra in Magadha (present-day Bihar, India). It had been the capital of the Maurya Dynasty since the reign of Chandragupta Maurya (340 B.C.–298 B.C). The Kalinga war brought about a great change in the mind-set of Ashoka. After witnessing the mass-killing in the Kalinga war, he embraced Buddhism. He stuck to the path of nonviolence in his personal life and dedicated himself to the propagation of Buddhism. His patronage led to the expansion of Buddhism in the Mauryan empire and other kingdoms during his rule. He established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha. He firmly resolved to spread Buddhism beyond the boundary of the then India. James Bissett Pratt says, “According to the Ceylonese tradition Ashoka not only did his best to spread Buddhism over all the world; he also sought to purify the Buddhist order at home by calling a Third Council held at his capital^[1], Pataliputra”.

Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka who occupied a unique place among the rulers of the world. He was a devotee of ahimsa, love, truth, tolerance and vegetarianism. He is remembered in the history of the world as a philanthropic administrator Ashoka is referred to in the history as “Samrat Chakravartin” Ashoka—Ashoka, the Emperor of Emperors. He has been described by historians as “the greatest of kings”. Such epithet has been used.not because of the physical extent of his empire, extensive as it was, but because of his character as a man, the ideals for which he stood and the principles by which he^[2] governed..

Ashoka was the only one warrior-emperor who renounced warfare (225 B.C) on ethical ground, and that too after a great war victory. He made a public proclamation, “Henceforth, I shall not conquer the world through wars and battles but through the Dhamma^[3] (through a kingdom of righteousness)”. The historians consider Vikramaditya (400 A.C) and Akbar (1600 A.C) as great kings. We do not consider Ashoka to be great either for the annexation of neighbouring states or for the expansion of his empire through battles and wars. He is considered great because he cherished a sense of freedom for the mankind, and his widespread love for wisdom, for domestic and foreign policy, based on the religion of Lord Buddha, also for his sincere efforts to spread the Dhamma. It is due to this righteous policy, he is regarded as a protector of the religion of truth from Siberia to Shrilanka. No other Indian emperor’s success could pervade so far and wide as did Ashoka or no other king had so everlasting and so deep an impact^[4] on the history.

Though emperor Ashoka belonged to the Mauryan dynasty, the tagging of the “Mauryan” suffix with his name is not much in vogue. His grandfather is frequently mentioned as Chandragupta Maurya but (7)

Ashoka is not called Ashoka Maurya. He is more prominently and popularly known as Dhamma Ashoka (Ashoka, the righteous) or Priyadarshi Ashoka. So far as the origin of the Mauryan dynasty is concerned, the scholars are of different opinions. Some historians opine that Chandragupta founded the Mauryan dynasty after his mother’s name “Muradevi.”

According to Digha Nikaya, the people of Peepallivan belonged to a warrior race and were known as the Moriyas. It is learnt from the Jain and Buddhist traditions that the term “Moriya” or “Maurya” is related to the root-word “Mayur” which means “peacock” Engraving of a picture of a peacock on the Nandgargh Pillar inscription and that of a peacock on the Sanchi Stupa, both built by emperor Ashoka, support the above theory.

Moriyas of the Peepallivan were harassed by king Virudhabha, and consequently they took shelter in the Himalayan mountains. The earlier inhabitants^[5] of this Himalayan settlement, prior to this settlement, used to rear peacocks or thatch their house roofs with peacock feathers. Exactly for this reason, they were known as the Moriyas. These people were terribly afraid of king Ajatshatru and left the kingdom to make the Himalayas their new home.

The narration of Mahabodhivamsa (chronological records) also supports this contention. A legendary hero Kumar Chandragupta or popularly known as.Narind.Kula.Sambava. who used to reside in a Moriya colony was born here. This colony was set up by the Shakyas later on he became the king of Pataliputra with the help of Canakya. It is quite evident from Mahavamsa records that Chandragupta was born in the Moriya^[6] clan (Mariyanam Khattiyanam Vamse Jatam).

There are several legendary and mythological fictions about the birth of Ashoka. Many scholars opine that Ashoka’s grandmother might have been a Greek princess. This is quite possible for there were marital relations between Chandragupta and Seleucos Nikator of Greece (Diplomatic treatise named “Indica” is a written proof this contention) The very existence of diplomatic ties between the two countries, India and Greece and the marital co-habitation between the Mauryas and the Greeks. the marital exchange of Mauryan princess to Seleucos and the Greek maiden to Chandragupta. cannot be ruled out. There is, however, no written records for such a matrimonial alliance between Chandragupta and Seleucos to prove that king Bindusara was born of a Greek maiden, so as to justify the fact that Ashoka was a grandson of Chandragupta, or to say that Bidusara had married a Greek girl who gave birth to Ashoka. If this relationship is based on a historic reality, the Greek maiden must have been a daughter of Seleucos Nikator from a Persian^[7] maiden.

The chronological records available in Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa and Samanta pasadika are silent about Ashoka’s mother. The critics and commentators of Mahavamsa opine that the name of Ashoka’s mother was Dharma (Pali Dhamma) who belonged to the martial race of Moriyas (Moriya Vamsaja). A religious preceptor of that royal family was one of the.Ajivaka. sects, named “Jansen”, “Jarsen” or.Jerson.. Queen Dhamma of that family was Bindusara’s principal queen. In Avadanmala, she is called Subhadrangini. The critics of Mahavamsa narrate that Bindusara’s mother was a daughter of Chandragupta’s maternal uncle whom Chandragupta^[8] had married.

According to the Buddhist scriptures, the name of emperor Ashoka’s mother was Subhadrangini. She was the daughter of a Brahmin from Campa (Bhagalpur). It is said that she was given as a gift to King Bindusara. It is presumed from her name that she was a beautiful woman. Other queens of harem kept her away from Bindusara due to a fear psychosis working in their minds. It may be rightly assumed that the king might have completely forgotten her in the company of hundreds of royal females. One day all of a sudden she had an opportunity of dressing the hair of the king. Her unique touch thrilled and impressed king Bindusara. When the king enquired more about her presence there, she made the king remember as to how she was gifted by her father to His Highness. It was after this incident that the king pronounced her his queen. In this way he accorded her the status of a queen. After the birth of a son, Bindusara even declared that he was then “free from sorrow., i.e.,.Ashoka”. The new-born prince from Subhadrangini was accordingly named.Ashoka..

The Sinhalese tradition states that the name of Ashoka’s mother was Dharma or Dhamma. Divyavadana and Ashokavadana traditions also state the same fact. She preferred to be called a “Janapadkalyani”, one who cared for the welfare of the people. The same scriptures describe her as Subhadrangini and a daughter of Campa’s Brahmin.

The edicts and inscriptions of Ashoka give any information neither about his childhood nor about his mother. According to the Pali tradition, Ashoka had one sister. Her son Agnibrahma married Ashoka’s daughter Sanghamitra. The son of this couple was named Suman. The Pali scriptures say that king Bindusara had sixteen queens and from them he had hundred and one (101) sons. Of these royal sons, Suman Kumar was the eldest and Ashoka was younger than Suman Kumar. But according to the Divyavadana tradition, the eldest prince (or crown prince) was not Suman Kumar but Sushima.

Ashoka had one younger brother named Tissa. He was popularly known^[9] as Vitashoka in the Northern Buddhist records. The Chinese literary sources call him either Sudatta^[10] or Sugotra. We find two verses about Ashoka’s brother in Theragatha. The first verse is found in Vihariya Sthavira, and the other in Vitashoka. Thera’s^[11] works commentator Dhammapala states that as per the Vihariya thera, the name of Ashoka’s brother^[12] was Tissa and the brother of Vitashoka was Vigatashoka. These two royal personalities were entirely two different persons.

It is said that his father disliked him as he was not good-looking. But Bindusara was greatly impressed by other qualities of Ashoka. In appreciation of his great virtues, Bindusara appointed him as a Governor^[13] (Sub-king) of Ujjain. Ashoka did not like his appointment at Ujjain as he thought that his father wanted him to be far away from his sight.

Prior to the reaching the capital town Ujjain, Ashoka had a hospitality of Vidishanagar (township). There he was introduced a merchant’s daughter named “Devi”. He accepted her as his queen wife (286 B.C) and thereafter came to the provincial capital Ujjain. There he was blessed^[14] with a son (284 B.C) who became famous Mahindra Sthavira. Later on, this son of emperor Ashoka was sent to Sinhala Dvipa (Island) for the spread of Buddhism. Two years after the birth of Mahindra (282 B.C), Ashoka was blessed with a daughter named Sanghamitra.

According to the critics (Tika) of Mahavamsa, queen Devi was very beautiful and fortunate. It was for this reason that, her father had named her “Devi”. In the Mahabodhivamsa treatise (110-98 B.C). She is described as Vidisa Mahadevi one of the Sakyan princeses. Mahindra had gone to meet his mother at Vidisa before his departure to Lanka (modern Shrilanka). The queen built a great Vihara^[15] named Vidisagiri to provide lodging for her son. After the completion of his tenure as a sub-king of Ujjain, Ashoka returned to Pataliputra. His royal children accompanied him, but queen Devi refused to go. She stayed back at Vidisha.^[16]

Around this time Takshashila province witnessed a rebellion. King Bindusara considered Ashoka to be quite capable of suppressing this provincial upsurge. Ashoka got fully prepared to meet the challenge and set out for the provincial capital. As soon as the news of his arrival reached, the citizens of Takshashila town came out enthusiastically to welcome him. The senior citizens and the leaders of Takshashila submitted an appeal to him informing that the people of Takshashila province were not against the emperor. They should not be treated as traitors. They were opposed to the present administration only because they were insulated by a villainous minister. They were, actually peace-loving people and as such they wanted equally peace-loving and efficient administrator^[17] at Takshashila. Immediately after reaching the provincial capital, Prince Ashoka won the hearts of the people. The spirit of rebellion died down and the province became calm and quiet in course of time.

Emperor Bindusara had no desire to proclaim Ashoka as his heirapparent. But the ministers at Pataliputra considered Ashoka to be the (12)

most befitting prince to succeed his father. All the members of the ministerial council were quite familiar with the prowess and administrative capability of Ashoka. They were impressed by his success at Avanti and Takshashila. His success as a sub-king (governor) made him somewhat confident. With the help of ministers and officials, Ashoka staked his claim to the throne at Pataliputra (273 B.C). The war of succession (269 B.C) continued for four years. Ashoka coroneted himself in 273 B.C. We come across various reasons for this delayed coronation ceremony.

According to Dr. K.P. Jayswal the coronation ceremony could not be solemnized before the completion of 25 years. Ashoka had to wait for long four years in order to fulfil this condition. But we are not quite sure if the contention of Dr. K.P. Jayswal is historically true. We gather from Mahabharata (Mythology) that prince Vichitravirya was coroneted at a very early age.

According to various Buddhist sources, Ashoka had to assassinate ninety nine^[18] of his brothers before declaring himself an emperor. During this royal carnage and battle of succession, a shrewd Brahman named Radhagupta was very helpful. Ashoka rewarded him with the poet of Amatya or the chief of Ministers. Dr. Smith states that many of his brothers were alive even after his 17 to 18 years of rule as a mighty monarch. It is quite possible that Ashoka got rid of his brothers who were opposed to Ashoka’s succession to the throne of Pataliputra or whom he considered his mighty opponents through war stratagem. It is also likely that the brothers who were on his side or who supported his cause might have saved their lives. Most probably Ashoka had to clear off his way to the royal throne through wars of succession. This (13)

prolonged warfare may be one of the main reasons for the delay of four years for the coronation^[19] ceremony.

We learn from various historical sources that Ashoka was called from Ujjain to Pataliputra for the purpose of suppression of uprising at Takshashila. After quelling down the provincial rebellion at Takshashila, he returned to Ujjain. But when king Bindusara was on his death-bed, Ashoka marched to Pataliputra and asserted his claim over the throne. At that time his elder brother Sushim^[20] or Suman (son of a step mother) was far away in Kashmir. When he learnt about the death at Bindusara and Prince Ashoka’s act of enthronement, he, too, reached Pataliputra. But Sushim was killed in the battle^[21] of succession. It is quite likely that other brothers who fought on the side of prince Sushim might have been killed by Ashoka and those who supported him might have saved their lives by making peace with Ashoka. It is evident from this fact that many of his brothers with their families liked at Pataliputra and outside during his fairly long reign of 37 years.

When prince Suman was killed, his wife Sumana devi was in an advanced stage of pregnancy. She ran away and escaped into a colony of the candalas (outcastes). There she gave birth to a handsome boy under a banyan tree (Nigrodha). The baby was named Nigrodha because he was born under the shed of tree-god (Vriksha-devata). After seeing her, the head of the village (Choudhary) accepted her as king’s mistress. He served the royal mother and son for seven years Mahavarun Sthavira foresaid the qualities^[22] of Arhant in the boy. One day, he ordained the boy as a novice^[23] with the permission of the royal mother.

Much later on, Ashoka was led to the Buddhist way of life on hearing the sermons from Nigrodha Shramanera.

Emperor Ashoka had five queens. As stated earlier, he had married “Devi” when he was a governor of Ujjain. His second queen was Asandhimitra. The third queen was named Kaluvaki or Caruvaki or Kalavinka. The fourth queen was Padmavati and the fifth one was called Tishyarakshita. A pillar inscription regarding the queens reveals^[24] to us that Kaluvaki was emperors second queen and the mother of prince Teeval (Tivara). Asandhimitra was Ashoka’s chief^[25] or principal queen. Twenty six years after coronation of the emperor, Asandhimitra passed away. Four years later Ashoka proclaimed Tishyarakshita (Divyavadana fame Tishyarakshita) as his chief queen. Even during the lifetime of Asandhimitra, she was her chief nurse. The Mahavamsa^[26] and Divyavadana^[27] treatises corroborate the fact that Tishyarakshita was envious of the Bodhi tree of Buddha Gaya because the mighty Bodhi tree was as dear as his life Tishyarakshita could not accept this fact and she tried her level best to destroy the sacred tree of the Supreme Enlightenment.

Prince Kunal was the most beloved son^[28] of the emperor. But Tishyarakshita could not tolerate that anyone but she would be the most (15)

beloved person of Ashoka. She was terribly envious of Kunal who considered her to be his mother. Tishyarakshita got the eyes of prince Kunal pulled but simply because she wanted to fulfil her desire. This ghastly incident occurred when Ashoka was ruling as a governor at Takshashila. Ashoka built a hundred feet high stupa in memory of his son. This famous stupa was situated to the north of the.Dakhin Parvat. (Southern mountains) and to the south-east of Takshashila. It was the very spot where Kunal’s eyes were pulled out. Huen Tsang says that the blind people used to come here and pray for eye-sight. It was believed that many blind persons got back^[29] their eye-sight in consequence of such prayers.

According to the statements found in the Divyavadana treatise, prince Kunal was the son of queen Padmavati. He was also famous as Dharmavardhan or Dhammavadhan (a promoter of Dhamma). Padmavati and Kulivaki were generally known by the name of their sons, Kunal and Teeval respectively and these names were used as their sub-titles. When Padmavati gave birth to a son, the emperor named him “Dharmavardhan”. But after seeing the beauty of the eyes of the baby, the ministers informed the emperor that the prince’s eyes were similar to a Himalayan bird^[30] Kunal. Hence, the son from Padmavati was named Prince^[31] Kunal. He was born during the period when Ashoka was ruling the country according to the doctrines of the Tathagata. This was the reason behind naming his son Dhammavivardhan. It is said that Ashoka had completed the work of building 84,000 Dhammarajika Viharas^[32] before the birth of Kunal. The emperor also completed the construction of 84,000 chaitya along with the Viharas in the 7th year of his coronation. The name of Prince Teeval or Teevar appears in much later inscriptions as a king^[33] of Koshala. He was named Teeval or Teevar (meaning one with sharp eyes) since his eyes were as sharp as the eyes^[34] of a hunter. Ashoka had been ruling the country in accordance with the Buddha Sasana even at the time of prince Teevar’s birth.

The Kalinga war proved to be the last battle^[35] in the life of emperor Ashoka. Some historians are of the opinion that Ashoka waged this war after his conversion to Buddhism. Some historians opine that Ashoka was not a committed. Buddhist because he did not fully grasp the teachings^[36] of Lord Buddha. But this view appears baseless after studying the historical proofs properly. The Kalinga war was a bloody, catastrophic battle. Over 150,000 soldiers were taken captives. More than 10,000 people were killed on the battlefield and many others died due to starvation^[37] and disease. Ultimately, Ashoka won victory in the Kalinga war in the 8th year^[38] of this coronation.

Kalinga was a prosperous Kingdom with abundant food grain and treasures. This kingdom had trade and commercial ties with Burma and south-east Asia. Kalinga was famous for tusks and ivory articles. The fields and forests of Kalinga were infested with elephants and tuskers which were essential in the warfare of that period. In the fierce battle in Kalinga, 60,000 foot-soldiers, 1000 horse-soldiers and 700 elephants fought^[39] on the Kalinga side. It is not yet very clear to the historians (17)

as to why Ashoka invaded Kalinga. May be, the emperor was allured by the wealth of Kalinga. Some historians opine that Ashoka intended to expand the boundary of the Mauryan empire. Of course, historians were unanimous that the soldiers and people of this kingdom fought with bravery and determination. Some scholars think that the kingdom of Kalinga was a Buddhist state before the aggression of Ashoka. However, the death and destruction in the Kalinga battle left on indelible impression on the mind of Ashoka. The sorrowful cries of mothers and children started echoing into his ears and he repented very much.

After the Kalinga battle, Ashoka was passing through a phase of mental depression. One day, he saw a young novice called Nigrodha Shramanera passing peacefully through the royal path in front of his palace. It seemed that the emperor drowning in a ocean of sorrow had found a straw to catch at. He was inspired with a ray of hope. He said to Nigrodha,.Venerable (Tat) novice, please be seated on the throne.. The novice went towards the royal throne. As the young novice approached the throne, Ashoka said to himself, “Today this Shramana (novice) will be master^[40] of my palace”. The emperor lent a helping hand to the novice to ascend the throne under a royal white umbrella. The emperor was pleased to see the young novice on his throne. Ashoka entertained the novice with the royal recipe prepared for himself. After this royal welcome, he asked Ven. Nigrodha to recite an important sermon of the Buddha. The novice preached to the emperor a sermon on Appamada^[41] Vagga of the Dhammapada. After listening to the sermon of the novice, Ashoka developed a great^[42] interest in the Buddha Sasana.

The emperor said, “Venerable novice. I offer you the meals of eight persons”. The novice replied,.I shall present to my chief^[43] preceptor. The king again offered eight plates full of meals to the novice. The shramana dedicated it to his preceptor. Then Ashoka offered him eight more plates full of meals. The novice dedicated it to the monastic order (Bhikkhu Sangha). When the emperor offered him the food for the fourth time, the novice accepted it. The next day the novice came to the palace before noon. He was accompanied by thirty two monks. Ashoka served the monastic order with the royal recipe. After serving the monks with food, Ashoka listened to the sermons from the community of monks. He was deeply impressed by their sermons. He, along with the members of royal family, look refuge in the Triple^[44] Gem.

Later on, the king raised the above figure of monks to sixty thousand and offered food and other essential provisions to them. The emperor asked the order of monks,.What was the actual number of sermons delivered^[45] by the Buddha?. In reply to his question Moggali Putta Tissa Sthavir said,.Eighty four thousand sermons, O great king, the Lord had delivered.. On hearing this, the king replied, “I build a Vihara for each of these sermons^[46] and worship them”. It transpires from this fact that emperor Ashoka accepted the Dhamma and became a lay^[47] follower. Ashoka started a constructive mission for the spread of Buddhism in the first falf of his eleventh year of coronation.

Some scholars, especially the Indian scholar, make an abortive attempt to establish the fact that Ashoka was a non-Buddhist. But none (19)

of these scholars has been able to negate the Buddhist identity of the emperor. It must, however, we admitted that the phrase “Buddha Dhamma” does not feature in the inscriptions of Ashoka what we find in the inscriptions is the word “Dhamma” without any mention of “Buddha” or “Baudha” It is quite likely that the practice of prefixing the word “Buddha” or “Baudha” was not in vogue till the reign of Ashoka. In Pali literature, the term “Dhamma-Vinaya” instead of “Buddha Dhamma” was prevalent. It should be borne in mind that Ashoka was a great emperor of a vast empire called “Jambudvipa”. For a ruler of such magnitude, the welfare of non-Buddhists was not less in importance, compared to that of Buddhists. Other religious faiths, too, received equal importance and attention in his polity. The secular minded scholars may not like to brand Ashoka as a “Buddhist” emperor, but his missionary work within India and abroad will certainly, enable his critics to accept the truth that Ashoka was a Buddhist. The pillars, edicts, and inscriptions speak in clear language that Priyadarshi Ashoka was a Buddhist emperor.

According to some scholars, one of the greatest proofs of his being a Buddhist is that he had^[48] become a bhikku. A Chinese traveller I-tsing who travelled across India nine hundred years after the rule of Ashoka, had noticed a portrait of Ashoka in a unique style, dressed^[49] in a monk’s robes. One can definitely believe the fact on the basis of the account ot the Chinese traveller. According to I-tsing, one of the other^[50] Buddhist emperors had put on the monastic robes on two occasions (527 A.C and 529 A.C). Likewise, in the 12th century A.C one of the Jain monarchs^[51] too had become a Jain Muni. As a Buddhist monk, he (20)

received his religious name and proclaimed himself as a teacher of the Buddhist monastic order purging his rule Ashoka undertook many vows^[52] and uposathas. A Japanese emperor also became a monk in 11th or 12th century. He openly and publicity guided the administration of the country in his monastic robes. He appointed temporarily his son^[53] as a king.

One may, however, doubt if the monarch of such a vast empire can lead the life of a monk and at the same time carry forward the responsibilities of ruling the country. According to the Indian Hindu religions tradition, the kings used to renounce the worldly life at a particular age and entrust their sons with the reins of royal power. They put on the robes of a Sanyasi (mendicant) and roam about in the fields and forests. But the Buddhist emperors of China and Japan discharged the dual responsibilities. It is, therefore, more likely that emperor Ashoka could have become a monk during the times of his pilgrimages of the Buddhist shrines, and would have, again, become a lay Buddhist. It was quite possible as there was no such binding on the Buddhist monks to remain in the monastic order for ever. Even in modern times, the lay Buddhist followers including the king may get ordained as monks for a short period (7 days, 10 days, 30 days etc.) in a country like Thailand.

After taking refuge in the Triple Gem (the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha) emperor Ashoka himself said, “I have become a lay Buddhist follower” For the first one year, I did not show appreciable understanding of the Dhamma. But later on, in the second year when I not only met the monks but also lived with them, I felt that I am making a satisfactory progress^[54] in the Dhamma understanding.. In a similar manner the emperor inscribed on the same pillar that he was a lay^[55] Buddhist follower. It is undoubtedly clear that Ashoka was a Buddhist in religious faith. This kind of language is quite unknown even to the present day politicians and diplomats. Mr. K.V. Rangaswami says that Ashoka was the first great administrator^[56] who had become a Buddhist.

Mr. Amulyachandra Sen states that Buddhism spread outside India with the help of Ashoka. It is quite possible that the religion which Ashoka spread in India might not be Mahayana or Hinayana or even Buddha Sasana. It might have been even Hinduism (Varnashramdharma). As there is no clear proof, the scholars have made proof, the scholars have made some conjunctures about his religious inclination. The historians who attempt to prove that Ashoka was a Buddhist king refer to the incident of Ashoka’s convening the third Buddhist council which was, certainly meant for the propagation of Buddhism. Most of the preachings and teachings^[57] through different kinds of Edicts and inscriptions were nothing but the Buddhist sermons. These historians hold up the fact that Ashoka built 84,00 viharas and stupas in support of his propagation of the Buddha Dhamma. According to some scholars,.Personal religion and state religion of Ashoka were two different things. But when we make a review of emperor’s missionary works, nothing like this is seen. Even if these were two religious facets of his personality, they were certainly the two images of the same Buddhist religion.

Mr. Rangaswami opines,.Broadly speaking, Ashoka’s religion was nothing but Brahmanism (Varnachramdhamma). But in another context he comments that Ashoka was a Buddhist. These two statements are contrary and contradictory to each other. In reality, the religious faith of Ashoka has nothing to do with Brahmanism whatsoever. It has already been stated that Buddhism was popularly known as the “Dhamma Vijaya” at that time. Adding the prefix “Buddha” or “Baudha” to Dhamma was not in practice till then. When Mahindra Sthavir reached Shrilanka, King Lankeswar Tissa asked, “Whose disciple are you?” In reply Mahindra said, “Samana Mayang Maharaj Dhammarajassa savaka”. The English rendering of his utterance is as follows.O king we are the disciples of the king of right consciousness (Dhammaraja), the lord Buddha.. Thus there seems to be no difference between the religion of right consciousness an that of the personal religion of emperor Ashoka.

The scholars like Prof. Fleet, Prof. Vincent Smith and Prof. Dr. D.R. Bhandarkar differ in their opinions as regards the religious traits of Ashoka. According to Prof. Fleet, emperor Ashoka’s personal religion is the very replica of his state religion which is found in the epic^[58] poems. His religious polity is quite evident from his pillars of inscriptions. Prof. Smith states, “The basic doctrines of Ashoka’s religion are found in the basic tenets of all religions”. The views of Prof. Smith are more or less akin to those of Prof. Radhakumud Mukherjee. Both of them consider the Dhamma (the religion) preached by Ashoka to be the universal religion.

But Mr. Senrat and Mr. Hultch probe Ashoka’s religion in the light of Buddha’s sermons. They equate the emperor’s religion with the Buddha Sasana. Prof. Bhandarkar is a prominent supporter of the view of Mr. Senrat. He says, “Ashoka’s religion was not the prototype of ancient Buddhists and the householders”. Prof. Bhandarkar and Prof. Roychudhary draw our attention to the Buddha’s sermons preached by chakravarth. In justifying this view, Prof. Benimadhav Barua states, “The religion of Ashoka directly relates to the basic doctrines taught by Gautama, the Buddha. This has no relation or relevance to other religions and beliefs and no need has arisen so far to bring about transformation^[59] in this view”. Whether it is called a state religion or the religion of the people or even the world religion, it makes little difference in the original^[60] stand. It transpires from a close and analytic study of Prof. T.W. Rhys Davids that there is no mention of either soul God, or even the Buddha^[61] and Buddhism^[62].

The word.Upasaka. is found in both jain and Buddhist scriptures (Tharastha Gahatha inscription 12-13). From the religious point of view, the upasakas (by followers) are those shramans and Brahmans who are considered to be the donors and devotees of any particular set (Bhabru inscriptions). According to Nikaya inscription 13, every stand point and tradition has its own philosophy (Kalangan Edicts 12). The upasakas (by followers) were those householders who were under various social systems and under the guidance of their teachers. They had strong faith in the ideals of the Buddha and were leading religious lives as per their dhamma teachers. (Tatra Tatra Prasanna Inscription 12).

Any state religion also may become the religion of the householders if it serves the basic religious needs of the people. The difference lay in the fact that the state religion was supported by state power while there was no such backing behind mass religion. Of course, mass religion had social bonds and traditional support behind it. Religious protection was the aim of both the types of religion this aim was sought to achieve through love for truth and establishment of peace in the world Achievement of Nibbana or emancipation of the self from sorrow was the goal of individual life. It was said that only the righteous people might reach the heaven of plenty (Yipule sagga). People who lead the life of Dhamma reap the fruits in the other world (Bahu Phalan, sadhavani inscription 5, 7).

So far as upasaka dhamma of Ashoka’s concerned, none other than Prof. Rhys Davids has been able to hypothesis and derive logical^[63] conclusions. In this regard Prof. Bhandarkar has convinced his readers very logically by giving an example of Sigalovada Sutta. Sermons for householders. religion are given in Mahamangal Sutta and in Mahamangal^[64] Jataka. All these sermons, ornamented in a fashion, are available chronologically. These suttas are marked by the righteous way of living. As a result Buddha Sasana left a lasting impact in India. The principles regarding duty and righteousness, as found in the inscriptions of Ashoka are as follows:—

a) To obey the parents and serve them in old age. Matari. Pitari susussa. inscription no. 3, 11, 13, Pillar inscription no. 7 and small inscription.

b) To respect and glorify the teachers. achariya apchariye sususse Thaviye (small inscription) guru susussa (inscription No. 13) Gurunang apachiti (inscriptions) and small inscription Pillar inscription No. 7).

c) To honour the senior citizens. aggabhuti susussa (inscription No. 3).

d) To honour the old and elders and serve them. bhair. susussa buddh susussa (Inscription No 4). To seek their advice, and to be prompt in rendering service to them. vayo mahalakanang an uppahapati (Pillar inscription No. 7). Thairanang Buddhanang dassane (Inscription No. 8)

e) To serve the shramanas and Brahmanas and show a sense of generosity in giving alms. babhane. samane sampatipati (inscription, a Pillar inscription) shraman, brahman danang (inscriptions) dassanecha (inscription No. 8).

f) Brotherhood towards friends, relatives, companions. mitta bandhut sohayanatiketu shamyapatipati (inscription no. 13) danang (inscription no. 3-9)

g) To practise compassion towards the serfs and servants—dasanaikamhi samunaj apatipati (inscription no. 9, 11, Pillar inscription no. 7).

h) To feed aged father and mother and show parental respect towards the king (inscription no. 2)

i) Not to kill or injure living beings, and not to obstruct others views. anarambho, pranang, avihimsa shabhutanang (inscription no. 4)^[65]

The inscriptions of Ashoka clearly narrate the duties of householders. the responsibilities which are expected of father,

brother^[66] or husband. Similarly such righteous deeds should be performed towards friends, acquaintances, relations and neighbours. (inscription no. 9, 11)

Ashoka’s code of ethics (public conduct) is very closely related to the Buddhist psychology and Buddhist justice. Small (minor) edicts and inscriptions describe and explain the words like “samrat”, “Indiye”, “Nithule”^[67], Kodhe, “mane” and “Issaya” These words refer to those things which head men to moral degradation—acinava gamini. Public instruction list no. 1 mentions a code of morality in the view of spirit of doing good “issa”, asulohe (ubyetana inscription), nithuliye (nithurata. heartlessness) and comparative roughness^[68] appear together in the Dhammadaye sutta, a rule of true^[69] successor to the kingdom of righteousness. In the like manner, these words are understood equally even in “Purabheda Sutta” and “Mahaniddesa” The two lists of Pali code are given simultaneously. They keep in touch with following words. anger, enmity, conceit and blame these are two pairs of qualifications like chanda and farusa which are applicable to one class^[70] or kind of people. Ashoka’s “akhakhase achande sakhinalambhe” or “achande athalusang” (inscription no. 1) finds their Pali form “akakkasang, aphrusang (Jataka 3, p. 248)”. Ashoka’s “sakhinalambha” directly relates to Pali “Sanhavaso” (Jataka 4, p. 110)

There are two kinds of inscriptions which bear their special importance. They are generosity and compassion (dana and daya). In Pali language there is a term “anudaya” (thinking as well as doing meritorious acts towards others) for “daya”. According to Lord Buddha’s relevant sermon, “anudaya” implies showing of sympathy, consolation, and thinking good of others, while “daya”, refers only to compassion “Dana” as also understood as material sacrifice (in Pali it is called “caga” or “pasicaga”). Ashoka uses the word “dana”^[71] in many senses. Pillar inscription no. 2 makes a mention of eye donation (cakkhu dana), sacrifice of life (prana dana) and many such examples of dana.

For emperor Ashoka, religion was not merely a materialistic way of life, but a weapon of winning the hearts of mankind. If properly studied in today’s political context, it was meant to preserve the process of civilization, to establish friendly relations among nations and to create a new national character. Ashoka religious victory (dhamma vijay) was one of the four great victories^[72] achieved by the Indo-Aryans.

Sowing the seeds of the religious polity of Ashoka was achieved by him with the help of both Brahmanic and Buddhist way of life. Brahmanic (vedic life) economic policies assert, “The weak and mean have not only to accept the economic power of the strong, but also to remain content. Hindu mythological epic-poems also show the giving of presents or paying of war compensations and the acceptance of the rule of the vector after the war victory of Pandavas. Brahmanic vedic culture teaches to achieve even religious victory with the help of swords and violence”. However, the religions victory (dhamma vijay) of Ashoka adopts the middle path, where a peaceful approach is adopted while treating the vanquished. Mild fines (laghu dandata) are exacted from the defeated parties (stone inscription no. 13). The Buddhist religions victory (Buddha Dhamma Vijay) was achieved without the use of sword or violence or even without the use of army, atrocities or fines. Rather it was achieved through the reservation of high human values (dhamma abhidhamma vijay^[73]). Nowhere in Ashoka’s pillars there is any mention of either complete disarmament or wild and violent use of armed forces. The fact is that Dhammashoka’s complete religious victory was achieved through the principles of Lord Buddha’s religious^[74] victory. The basic tenets of the religious policy of Ashoka belonged to Lord Buddha’s dhamma victory.

After the demise of the Buddha different kings had built in their kingdoms eight stupas and enshrined the holy ashes and relies of Lord Buddha long before emperor Ashoka had come to power. He took a part of the ashes from seven of these stupas and chaityas. When the ashes were being unearthed at Ramagama chaitya, a “daitya” (a demon deity) appeared in human form. He approached the emperor and prayed that the ashes should not be removed from there. Ashoka complied^[75] with the request of that demon deity.

Emperor Ashoka had built over 84,000 viharas and equal number of chaityas through the length and breadth of his empire the ashes and bodily relies of the Tathagata in equal proportion were enshrined at these places of worship. The viharas and stupas were built at many important places. A chaitya was constructed near Kapilabastu where prince Siddhartha stayed for some time after renunciation. This was the spot where the crown prince^[76] shaved off his head.

Huen Tsang who came to India in the 7th century saw thousands of stupas and viharas in Gandhara province. But most of these shrines were destroyed. There were no less than 14 thousand viharas in neighbouring Udayana state. Many of the stupas and viharas in Takshashila were very high. Ashoka built a chaitya at the spot where queen Tishyarakshita had ordered the eyes of Prince Kunal to be pulled out. The eastern mountain of the ancient city of Takshashila was surrounded by viharas. Larger numbers of Sangharamas were built there. A Sangharama between Amiaral and Namranala^[77] in Takshashila was, most probably, built by Ashoka himself. A hillock on the east of ancient Takshashila was covered with viharas and Sangharamas. The earlier name of this very important place was “Dhammarajika” and it was probably constructed by Ashoka himself. It is believed that the stupas and chaityas enshrining the relies of the Buddha were mostly built by emperor Ashoka.

During the period of king Bindusara, prince Ashoka went to Takshashila to quell down the rebellion. It is not certain if he went to Kashmir but he is believed to have built Srinagar town. It was he who familiarised Kashmir^[78] with Buddhism. Ashoka established Devopaan (Deva pattan) town in Nepal hills and built a stupa there. Ashoka built two Sangharamas named Ashokarama and Kukkutarama in the capital city of Patiliputra.

After his conversion to Buddhism, the interest of his people in Tathagata’s religion grew. A large amount of money was spent from the state exchequer for the expansion of Buddhism. Due to his generosity towards monks, especially because of his providing them with food and other necessities, he was compared with Anathapindika, the feeder of the orphans.

On the advice and inspiration of his royal Chaplain Ven. Moaggaliputta Tissa, emperor Ashoka made pilgrimage to the sacred places associated with the life and mission of Lord Buddha. Wherever he went, he constructed stupas, viharas, monuments and pillars. He engraved and inscribed his moral message on them. Eye-witness accounts about many such memorials are available in the writings of Fa-hien (5th century A.C) and Huen Tsang (7th century A.C). The pillars and inscriptions of Ashoka are the talking stones of the history of ancient India.

Ashoka’s grandfather Chandragupta and father Bindusara expanded their empire through the length and breadth of ancient India. They expanded their empire as a part of the policy of expansionism and aggression. But Ashoka gave up this policy of forcible expansionism. He discontinued victory marches after winning victories. Instead he introduced peace and pilgrim marches as a part of his policy of religious victory. Ashoka used to treat such pilgrim parties and peace processions in a dignified manner as an emperor of Jambudvipa. In these pilgrimages, he used to be accompanied by his merchants, ministers, large number of elephants, horses, artists, sculptors and monks. Even the queens accompanied him on his pilgrimages.

His pilgrimages began (249 B.C) in the 20th year of his coronation. On the advice of Ven Moggaliputta, Tissa, Ashoka first went to Lumbini, the birth place of Siddhartha Gantama. During the pilgrimages of the emperor, his deputy chaplain Ven. Upagupta Sthavir, too, used to join him. Ashoka built a pillar at Lumbini to establish the fact that Lord Buddha was born here around 2500 years back.

He arranged to inscribe^[79] on the pillar the following truth:

.Devanampiyen piyaddisin lajjin visativasa bhisiten
Atan aagacha maheeyite hid Buddha jate sakyamuniti

Silavigadhabhi ca kalapite silathame ca usapapite
Hid bhagawang jate ti Lumbini game ubalike kate attha bhagiyecha.

Until the discovery of this pillar, many scholars and historians were not prepared to accept Lord Buddha as a historic personage later, the king went to Kapilavatu, Shravasti, Sarnath,^[80] Kusinara and after paying visit to Buddha Gaya, he returned to Pataliputra. According to Taranath, Ashoka visited Nalanda where he worshipped the chaitya of Ven. Shariputta and built a Sangharam there. It was due to this Sangharama that Ashoka is regarded as the founder of the Nalanda Mahavihara.

Ashoka built stupas and Chaityas wherever Lord Buddha and his important disciples lived at some point of their lives. We find the description of Ashoka’s religions pilgrimages in the travelogues of Huen Tsang. We come across exhaustive accounts of the chaityas and stupas in their accounts which narrate, “Dhammashoka had built three huge big stupas measuring 100 feet each”. It is said that the Nagarhar (Kandhar) stupa was 300 feet. Besides these, the emperor is said built the stupas at Mathura, Thaneswar, Kannouj, Saket (Ayodhya), Prayag, Koushambi, Shravasti, Srinagar, Kapilavastu, Kusinagar, Kasi, Sarnath, Magadh (Shahabad), Atavi, Vaisali, Swetpur (Hajipur), Rajgir, Budha Gaya, Hiranya parvat and Maharastra. The accounts further narrate that there were hundreds of Sangharamas in Pataliputra and some of them were in sound condition till 7th century A.C. The great Chinese traveller writes,.In the northern part of Pataliputra town, there is a royal gate built by emperor Ashoka. From this gate to the south there is a stupa and near it there is a Vihara, where the footprints of Lord Buddha can be located. The footprint was of the size of one foot and eight inches long and six inches broad. On it are engraved, the dhammacakka (Buddhist wheel of righteousness), lotus and swastika mark. To the north of this vihara also, there is a pillar, where it is inscribed.. Ashoka gifted the whole of Jambudvipa thrice to the Buddha the Dhamma and the Sangha. Kukkutarama vihara where Ashoka offered four kinds of donations to the Shramanas was situated to the south of the capital. Mr. James phillies opines,.Ashoka completed his religious pilgrimage exactly in 256 days. Why did he do so? Answer to this contention could be that, it was around that time 256 years might have been completed for Lord Buddha’s Mahaparinibbana. This fact can be further hypothesized..

Inspired by Mahindra’s matter Devi, Ashoka might have built a Vihara and stupa at Sanchi, and the inscription could have been engraved later on. In the inscription the emperor asked the monks and nuns to desist from creating schism in the Dhamma. His words of warning are,.Any member of monastic order who try to divide the sangha will be deprived of his dhamma robes and given white dress and driven^[81] out of viharas..

Indian houses and buildings before the Ashoka era used to be made of wood. Such houses are still found in Burma. The art of constructing buildings and houses even during Ashoka’s time seems to have come from Persia. Ashoka’s pillars are not only beautiful and attractive but also glittering and shining. It appears that such kind of polishing and sculpting might have been completed with care and hard^[82] work.

The.Ashoka chakka. or the “Dhammacakka” represents the Lord Buddha’s wheel of righteousness, commonly known as the law of dependent origination (causation) and the eightfold path. The stonesculpture of back-to-back-seated four lions on top of the pillar at

Sarnath are the marks of the Buddha’s lion-like roaring sermons in four directions. Likewise, horse, bull, lion, elephant and swan are the symbols of crown prince Siddharth Gautam and Lord Buddha.

260 years after the passing away of Lord Buddha, during the reign of emperor Ashoka, more than 60,000 monks had been residing at Ashokarama. In this period, the number of monks all over India increased appreciably. The honour and dignity of the monks had gone up. According to Dipavamsa, monks belonging to Ajivaka,83 Shraman and Brahmin sects in the guise of Buddhist monks were enjoying respect and honour in the company of Buddhist monastic order. It is learnt that the monks who ignored the Theravadin monastic tradition were either.Ajivakas. or non-Buddhist sects. A successful attempt was made to expel them. This process of purification proved useful to the Buddha sasana. When the second great Buddhist council was held hundred years after Lord’s death, Licchayi monks had convened a separate conference of their own. Up to the times of emperor Ashoka, the number of such monks continued to increase on the appeal and advice of the Thervadin monastic order, Ashoka convened the third great Buddhist council under the chairmanship of Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa.

Mr. R.R. Diwakar states, “There is no doubt that Ashoka had certainly embraced, but he did side with either the cause of any Buddhist seat^[83] or Buddhist communalism”. The research of the outcome of the third Buddhist council and that of the archaeological findings enable us to conclude that Dhammashoka was fully convinced of the Theravada tradition of Buddhism. It is now clear that the emperor’s royal chaplain (Rajguru) Ven. Moggaliputta, Tissa was the author of the.Kathavathu. treatise which is a religious book under

“Abhidhamma pitak”. In this treatise, he refused the validity of other Buddhist traditions of his time. In the ultimate analysis he uphold the superiority of Theravada tradition. Even Ashoka’s inscriptions support. The theories given in “Kathavathu”.

After some time there arose great difference (schism) between the “rigorous” and “fake” monks who used to stay in the viharas of Pataliputra. Ven. Moggaliputta made sincere efforts to pacify the monks and settle down their differences. When all his attempts failed, he became very unhappy. Disgusted with rough behaviour of the two factions of the monastic order, he left Pataliputra for Ahoganga^[84] mountains. The differences of opinions between the two groups of monks continued for four years. Staying together of all monks was an imperative factor for the uposatha ceremony and hence the royal uposatha practice could not be performed. Ashoka deputed one of his ministers to the viharas to calm down the quarrel between two groups of monks. When his efforts for pacifying the monks failed, he exerted pressure to make the monks perform the uposatha. The monks were not afraid of even the royal punishment. This attitude on the part of the monks^[85] made the minister desperate and he beheaded many monks. He angrily asserted, “I shall see that the royal uposatha is performed”. After witnessing the carnage of the monks, a younger brother of the emperor Ven. Tissa Sthavir went forward and stood in front of that cruel minister. Despite this inhuman slaughter of monks, they did not show their readiness to perform the uposatha ceremony. The minister came back to the palace and reported the matter to emperor Ashoka. The emperor rushed to the monastic order immediately and asked, “As to who was responsible for the carnage?” Those monks who were not scholars and experts in the Dhamma said, “Emperor, it is your fault”. Some others said, “It is not your fault”. After listening to the monks, Ashoka asked, “Is there no monk who is capable of dispelling my doubts and ending this religions quarrel?” The monastic order drew the attention of Ashoka to Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa. Then the emperor’s anxiety subsided and he saw some rays of hope to overcome the impasse that followed the carnage of monks.

Ashoka sent four Sthaviras and four ministers to bring Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa. They conveyed the emperor’s wish to him and requested him to accompany them to Pataliputra. But Ven. Moggaliputta refused to comply with their request. Next time Ashoka sent eight Sthaviras (elder monks) and eight ministers. Even then Ven. Moggaliputta refused to go. The emperor sent sixteen Stharviras and sixteen ministers in the third time. Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa showed his willingness to go this time. He reached Pataliputtra through the water ways. Ashoka himself went to the Ganga Ghat to receive the Mahasthavir. He got into waist-deep water and extended his right hand to Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa when the latter stepped down from the boat.^[86]

Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa did not stay at Vihara. He was lodged in the Rativardhan garden. The emperor humbly asked his chaplain (guru) “Am I liable for the blame of killing of the monks by my minister?” In reply to this question, Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa held up before, Ashoka the example of “Tittiriya^[87] Jatak” “Unless and until the mind is guilty along with the act of killing the very act^[88] cannot be called sinful”.

A week after this heinous incident, the emperor, in consultation with Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa, ordered for a conference. In separate tents, Ashoka and Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa called, turn by turn, each of the monks who attended the conference. Each and every monk was asked the question, “Ven” monk, of what religions understanding was Lord Buddha?. Many Monks answered, “The Lord was eternalist (saswatavadi)”. Ashoka forfeited the ordination of those who replied that the Buddha was saswatavadi. He disrobed such monks numbering over 60,000. These monks later gathered at Nalanda and called themselves eternalist sarvastavadin Buddhists. They convened^[89] their separate conference there. Since then Nalanda became the strong-hold of the Sarvasthavadins. Later on they spread to Kashmir, Central Asia and China.^[90] One of their branches reached Mathura also.

Then the emperor asked the same question to the loyalist monks, “Of what religions understanding was Sugata (Lord Buddha)?” They all answered that the Buddha was Vibhajjyavadin^[91] analyst. Ashoka accepted the reply after consulting Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa. After purifying the order (Sangha) and after cleansing his mind and heart, he felt freed. Later the uposatha ceremony was performed.

Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa thus chose 1000 monks who were experts and scholars of the Dhamma and who mastered Tripitika, in its true tradition^[92] (in Patisambhida) they were asked to concentrate, contemplate and recapitulate the original dhamma as taught by the Tathagata. Their convention was called at Ashokarama. In this connection it may be mentioned here that the first great Buddhist council was organised at the behest of Ven. Mahakashyapa Sthavir, the second great Buddhist council was convened by Ven. Yas Mahasthavir and the third great Buddhist council was convened on the advice of Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa by emperor Ashoka. In order to counter and clarify the false views about the true dhamma of Lord Buddha, he composed^[93] “Kathavathu” chapter (Kathavathu Prakaranna). This great council concluded in the 19th year of Ashoka’s coronation. The deliberation of the council continued for nine months. 1000 Theravadin monks took part in this deliberation. Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa was seventy two years old^[94] then.

After the conclusion of this council Ven. Moggaliputta Tissa sent preachers (dhammadutas to the neighbouring tributary provinces and foreign countries for the spread of the righteous religion. Emperor Ashoka helped him in his mission. The following list of monks and the places where they were sent is the proof of Ashoka’s Dhamma Missionary work:—

Majjanfic (Madhyamik) Sthavir—Kashmir & Gandhar.^[95]
Mahadeva Sthavir—Mahismamandal^[96]
Rakshita Sthavir—Vanvasa province^[97]
Yavan Dhammarakshita Sthavir—Uparant province^[98]
Mahadhammarakshita Sthavir—Maharastra province
Maharakshita Sthavir—Yavana country^[99]

Majjhima Sthavir—Himavant (Himalayan province).
Some and Uttar Sthavir—Suvarna Bhumi^[100] (Burma)
Mahamahinda Ithiya, Uttiya—Sinhala
Island (Shrilanka) Sambal and Bhaddhasal.

We learn from the edicts^[101] and inscriptions of Ashoka that dhammadutas were sent to many other places which are not included in the above list. Since the period of Chandragupta and Bindusara, the Mauryans developed relations with a few western countries. Greek ambassador Megasthenes came to Pataliputra during the period of the grandfather of Ashoka. (His official correspondence from Pataliputra to Greece is popularly known as.Indica.). As a part of the policy to consolidate and continue the traditional ties between the two countries, Ashoka sent his missionaries (dhammadutas) to Greece. Though their names are not known, the places of their deputation can be traced. One of the inscriptions narrates, “One of the Yavana Kingdoms was at the distance of 800 Yavanas. Its name was given as Antioka”. The names of the rulers of four kingdoms where Ashoka has sent kingdoms where Ashoka had sent his dhammadutas are also available. They were:—Turmaya^[102], Anticon^[103], Mig^[104] and Aliksunder^[105] (Alexandria).

Thus, he sent his preachers to Pandya and Tambraparniya tributory kingdoms in the south. We come across place-names like Kamboj (Cambodia), Nebhak, Nathapankatik, Bhoj Pitiniyak, Andhra and Pullind where Ashoka is believed to have sent his religious missionaries.

“Great king (Maharaja), no, even a person like you cannot claim to be the true successor of the Dhamma. But one who offers his son or daughter and ordains him/her in dedication for the cause of Buddha Dhamma has the right to claim and call himself a true successor and the benefactor of the Dhamma”. Ashoka had a great ambition that his heir would become the successor of the Buddha’s religion of right consciousness. Ashoka asked his son prince Mahindra and daughter princess Sanghamitra, “My beloved children would you like to get ordained? Pabbaja ordination (novice inducting ceremony) is very rare and important”. Listening to the appeal of father, they said, “Lord father if you so wish and permit us, we can get ordained even today. May your lordship get the blessings of Triple Gem”.

Since the time of ordination (Pabbaja) of governor Tissa and Agnibrahma,^[106] Mohinda and Sanghamitra had been longing for getting ordained. Within a few days Mahindra was appointed sub-king (governor). But Ashoka considered ordination superior to the post of governor. The emperor got his son and daughter ordained as a novitiate monk and a novitiate nun respectively with great festivity. At that Mahindra was 20 and Sanghamitra 18. Upadhyaya of the prince was Ven. Moggoliputta Tissa while his Acharya was Ven. Mahadev Sthavir. This female upadhyaya of Sanghamitra was famous nun Dhammapali and female Acharya was nun Ayupali. This ordination took place in the 6th year of Ashoka’s coronation.^[107]

Later on, after the completion of the third Buddhist council, Ven. Mahindra and other monks came to Shrilanka. Devanampriya Tissa, the then king of Sinhala was a friend of emperor Ashoka. The emperor sent to king Tissa the provisions for his coronation. King Tissa pre-fixed the title “Devanampriya” in memory of his relation with emperor Ashoka. The friendship of Mahindra’s father with the Sinhalese monarch proved very useful for the spread of Buddhism there. Subsequently, Sanghamitra, too, reached Shrilanka with a sapling of Bodhi tree from Buddha Gaya. She established a branch of nuns. order (Bhikkuni Sangha) in the island. Even now the Bodhi tree planted by Sanghamitra at Anuradhapura exists as a symbol of supreme Enlightenment. It is said that this is the oldest surviving tree on the surface of the earth. Mahindra is regarded as the Anubuddha (second Buddha) in Shrilanka.^[108]

All types of pillars, edicts and inscriptions have an important place amid the achievements of emperor. These inscriptions, engraved in “Brahmi” script, give us the realistic information of the Indian history. This “Brahmi” script is considered to be the root script for Indian and Sinhalese alphabet. One of the English^[109] scholars was able to decipher these Brahmi inscriptions for the first time in 1836. The coins of Indo- Greek kings which bore Greek and Brahmi letters proved useful to him. Much later on, historians and scholars of various countries also could read the Ashokan inscriptions. Among European, Indian and American scholars, the role of Sir Alexander Cunningham, the father figure of Indian Archaeological Survey and Prof. Emil Senart (French scholar) deserves special mention. The historians have classifed these inscriptions into eight categories^[110]. (1) Small (minor) inscriptions (2) Bhabru inscriptions (3) Caturdash inscriptions (4) Kalinga inscriptions (5) Cave inscriptions (6) Tarai Pillar inscriptions (7) Major or Prime inscriptions and (8) Minor (inferior) Pillar inscriptions.

1) The inscriptions in this category include:. (a) Siddhapura (Mysore) (b) Brahmagiri (Mysore) (c) Jating Rameswar (Mysore)

(d) Maskahi (Raichur, A.P) (e) Rupnath (Jabalpur M.P) (f) Vairat (Jaipur State) (g) Sasaram (Allahabad) (h) Gurjar (Datiya) (i) Rajul (Mandagiri) (j) Yerdugudi (Karnool A.P) (k) Gavormeth (Raichur A.P) (e) Palcogunda (Raichur A.P)

2) Bhabru inscription was discovered in Jaipur princely state (Rajasthan)

3) Caturdash inscription which was engraved in 256 B.C is considered very important. It is known as caturdash inscription simply because it consists of fourteen royal instructions. These inscriptions were excavated at following sites:. (a) Kalasi (near Dehradun) (b) Girnar (Junagarh Kathiawar) (c) Sahwa-gadhi (Yufajai Tashil near Peshwar) (d) Mansera (Aebatebad Hazara) (e) Yerdagudi (Karnool A.P) (f) Sopara (Bombay Distt. Thane) (g) Dhauli (Orissa) and (h) Jaugarh (Ganjam, Orissa)

4) Kalinga inscriptions are two in number and these are engraved on the major stone plate. The engraving was done before 256 B.C.

5) Three inscriptions are engraved in the caves of Barabar mountains in Gaya district. The period of engraving is understood to be between 257 B.C to 250 B.C.

6) Tarai inscriptions are two in number. They have been discovered in the Tarai region (Rumindehi or Lumbini) and Niliva village near Kapilavastu. The inscriptions date back to around 249 B.C.

7) Seven major Pillar inscriptions were discovered at six places. These Pillar inscriptions might have been completed between the period from 243.242 B.C. (a) Topara village (near Ambala) Pillar and (b) Meezut Pillar were lifted and carried to Delhi by the order of Phiroz Shah Tughluk. (c) Prayag Pillar was at first in Kaushambi. This pillar was also carried to Prayag from its original spot. Ashoka engraved his instructions on (d) Lauzia Areraj, (e) Lauriya Nandgarh and (f) Rampurva Pillar. These three pillars with their inscription are preserved in Champaran district (Bihar).

8) Minor pillar inscriptions are two in number. one at Sanchi and the other at Sarnath.

With regard to the language of Ashokan inscriptions, Prof. Emil Senart Writes, “The language is not beautifully ornamented and polished” It seems the inscriptions are written in the words of Ashoka himself, and ne one seems to have dared to correct it. It may not have been the language of the state but it seems to have been understood by the people all over his empire. At that time, the people of various kingdoms and countries (with whom Ashoka had diplomatic relations) may also be familiar with his language. However, this seems to be not possible. It is quite likely that it may have been the language of Magadh province of that time. Compared^[111] with Pali, it seems possible that it would have been the language of ancient Tripitaka..

We have come to know that the script used by Ashoka for his inscriptions and edicts was Brahmi. It is regarded as the mother script for the alphabet system of not only the modern Indian languages but also the languages of foreign countries like Shrilanka, Burma, Tibet, ancient Central Asia, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia and Philippines. This Brahmi script is derived from the letters used by pre-Vedic Aryans or ancient Aryans. According to some scholars, this script was prevalent in Mohenjodaro and north-west^[112] India. But such a view is not undisputed. It will not be proper to derive the conclusion that the Brahmi script was born out of Aryan alphabet system.

The Himalayan range was the northern boundary of the Ashokan empire. To the south were the Cholas, Pandyas, Satpuras and

Keralaputras which were independent states. Likewise, Tambraparni state was also in the south. But they all were his friendly kingdoms.^[113] After the victory in Kalinga war, his eastern boundary extended up to the Bay of Bengal and his western and north-western boundary extended up to Arabian sea^[114] and Antiok respectively. These states had friendly relations with Ashoka. Geographically speaking, the Ashokan empire can be divided into five parts^[115]. The four Greek Satrapates. Afganistan and Beluchistan were also parts of his empire. Five parts of Ashokan empire were:. 1) Prachya. North-east or Eastern provinces 2) Dakshin path (Southern states) 3) Paschim state (Pratichya or Uparanta) 4) Northern state (Urdhava, Udichya or Uttara path) 5) Central state (Madhyam, Madhya Desh, Antarvedi).

Ashoka, himself used to describe his empire as a spread-out^[116] one i.e., a vast empire with its capital^[117] at Pataliputra. He speaks of other important towns where his royal brothers, sisters, family members or some other relatives used^[118] to reside. The other important towns were: Takshashila^[119], Kaushambi^[120], Ujjayin^[121], Tosali and Sampa^[122], Suvarnagiri or Rishil`124. Besides, Ashoka makes a mention of some small towns like Kapialvastu, Srighna, Rajpur, Abhisar, Puskamavati, Girinagar

(Jaingirinagar), Supanik (Sopara), Virathagar, Vidisa and Gaya. It was due to his accepting the Buddhist religion and due to his honest efforts to change it into the empire of righteousness that it expanded into a great Empire^[123] called Jambudvipa. As per the Buddhist tradition there were 84,000 towns (big & small) in the empire.

Western and central provinces were directly governed by Ashoka himself. Other provinces were ruled by the royal princes and representatives appointed by the emperor. The head of a village was called Gram-Bhrunjaka or Gram-Bhojak. As per his economic policy, such a Gram-Bhojak used to look after the administration of five to ten hamlets and habitats. He received one fourth of the farm produce of each farmer-citizen of the village as the state revenue. The work assigned to each Gram-Bhojak was to look after the land and maintain the integrity of the respective village with the emperor. Sometimes, one-fourth, one-sixth or one-eight portion of this revenue was given to the state. A part of the tax was also spent on the armed forces. The class of artists received salaries from the state exchequer. A class of philosophers (guides) such as Shramanas & Brahmins were paid salaries by the government. The remaining revenue was spent on irrigation, public works and other welfare activities. A sizable revenue was spent on digging well, planting trees and maintaining hospitals.^[124]

Ashoka was perhaps the first ruler in the annals of mankind to make arrangements for women’s education. He was also the first emperor to make efforts to educate his subjects. Thus, Ashoka engraved edicts and inscriptions all over this empire^[125] in order to keep his people informed about Lord Buddha’s Dhamma education.

In the 13th year of his coronation Ashoka is said to have appointed the Dhamma, Mahamatya^[126] who were entrusted with the job of inculcating the Buddhist code of ethics in the minds of the subjects. In addition to the religious duties they were given some other works also (Bahumukha). Tosali and samapa^[127] inscriptions mention of two towns which were administered by the judges. They were also known as city administrator (Nagar Mahamatya). There were grades of town administrators (Nagaradhikari).

Ashoka’s grandfather, father and he himself were emperors. But Ashoka did not call himself a “Samrat”. We do not find the mention of the title “Samrat. in any of his inscriptions. Many other kings affixed various titles like Rajadhiraj (king of kings). But Ashoka deviated from using such worldly honorifics. However, Ashoka’s complete name and designation can be found in his inscriptions. But in most cases it is found in short forms such as, “Raja”, “Devanampriya”,.Priyadarshi. or sometimes as.Rajapriyadarshi”. In Maskhi inscription, of course, we find his name as “Devanampriya Ashoka”. In the Buddhist scriptures, he is described as Dhammaraja or Dhammashoka. Devanampriya was not his personal name, but his royal honorific. It is not known if it was used by any king before emperor Ashoka. It was later used by his grand son Dashratha (Brihadrath) Maurya.^[128] Ashoka never called himself a Maharaja in his inscriptions, we find only the title.Raja..^[129]

While commenting on the Sutras of Panini Katyayan (250 B.C - 200 B.C), a contemporary of Ashoka, makes use of the word

“Devanampriya” in an abusive sense. Kaithet (12th century A.C), a commentator of Patanjali, makes use of this title very carefully while the glossary of Hemchandra (12th century A.C) and and Kaumudi (10th century A.C) very clearly describe the title.Devanampriya. as.fool..

Giving an abusive and derogatory meaning of such a honorific title “Devanampriya” is somewhat inexplicable. It may be presumed that Vedic Brahminism suffered a great set-back due to Ashoka’s policy of non-violence, the prohibition of animal sacrifices^[130] and celebration of Yavanas as social festivals. The emperor’s policy of non-villeinage and renouncing warfare exasperated the warrior class people. This state^[131] policy proved to be a challenge to their existence. It was quite likely that the non-Buddhists, especially Brahmins, would not have tolerated Ashoka’s Buddhist missionary work. For example, the establishment of a separate^[132] department for the spread of righteous religion, giving religious sermons orally and through inscriptions, conducting royal pilgrimages to the places of Buddhist importance, organizing public debates on Dhamma, educating common people and installing inscriptions were quite novel works for that era..Generally scholars^[133] classify Ashoka’s inscription’s into the following categories:.

I. The Fourteen Rock Edicts,
II. The Seven Pillar Edicts,
III. The Two Separate Rock Inscriptions of Kalinga,
IV. (a) The Minor Rock Inscriptions I and II (b) The Bhabru (formerly called Bhadra) Rock Edict,
V. The Minor Pillar Edicts and
VI. The Cave (dedicative) Inscriptions.

The above mentioned inscriptions are, however, distributed locally as stated below:

I. The Fourteen Rock Edicts

(1) The Fourteen Rock Edicts were discovered of Girnar hill, incised on the north-eastern face of a rock, near the ancient town of Junagadh, in the Peninsula of Kathiawar (Sourashtra) now in the Bombay state;

(2) at Kalsi on a rock in Dehradun district of Uttar Pradesh;

(3) at Dhauli on a rock about some six or seven miles in the south of Bhuvaneswar in the Puri district of Orissa;

(4) at Jaugada on a rock (in ancient Khepingala-parvata) in Ganjam district of Orissa;

(5) Rt Shahbazgarhi on a rock in Yusufzai sub-division of Peshwar district, West Pakistan;

(6) at Mansehra on a rock in Hazara district, West Pakistan;

(7) at Sopara on a rock (in the ancient town of Surparaka) in Thana district, Bombay State;

(8) at Erragudi on a rock in Kurnool Distrct, Andhra Pradesh.

II. The Seven Pillar Edicts were discovered at.

(1) Topra (called Delhi-Topra or Delhi-Sivalik as it was transported in the 14th century A.D. by Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlak from Topra to Delhi) in Ambala district in East Punjab;

(2) at Meerut (called Delhi-Merrut as this was also transported by the same Tughlak Monarch to Delhi) in Uttar Pradesh;

(3) at Allahabad (now in Allahabad Fort, removed there from Koushambi, modern Kosam, by an unknown person who must have been a high-ranked one) in Uttar Pradesh;

(4) at Radhia (= Lauriya-Ararja) on way to Bettia in Champaran district in North Bihar;

(5) Madhia (= Lauriya-Nandangarh) on the road from Bettia to Nepal, in Champaran district in North Bihar;

(6) at Rampurwa, in Champaran district in North Bihar; It may be remarked here that only the Topra Pillar contains all the Seven Pillar Edicts, the six others containing only Pillar Edicts I-VI.

III. The Two Separate Rock Inscriptions of Kalinga

The Two Separate Rock Inscriptions of Kalinga, discovered at Dhauli (in Puri district) and Jaugada (in Ganjam district), take the place of Rock Edicts XI, XII and XIII of the other versions and they appear to be special records meant for the people of Kalinga, conquered by Ashoka.

IV. (a) The Minor Rock Inscriptions I and II

The Minor Rock Edicts I and II were discovered in the following places as stated below: Minor Rock Edict I may be said to have two local versions, Northern and Southern in variant recensions.

(i) The Northern versions occur at.

(1) Sahasram, in Shahabad district in South Bihar;
(2) Rupnath, Jabalpur district, Madhya Pradesh;
(3) Bairat, in Jaipur district, Rajasthan state;
(4) Gujarra in Datia district, Madhya Pradesh; and

(ii) the Southern versions occur at.

(5) Brahmagiri,
(6) Siddapura,
(7) Jatinga-Ramesvara
[5-7: in Chitaldurg district of Northern Mysore;]
(8) Maski, in Raichur district, formerly in Nizam’s Dominions, Hyderabad;
(9) Erragudi, Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh;
(10) Govimath, a hill near Kopbal in Raichur district, formerly in Nijam’s Dominions, Hyderabad;
(11) Palkigundu, a hill about 2 miles distant from Govimath in the same district;
(12) Rajula-Mandagiri on a rock near Pattikonda in Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh;

IV. (b) The unique Bhabru (or Bhabra) edict

The unique Bhabru (or Bhabra) edict was discovered at Bhabra near Bairat (hence also called as Second Bairat Rock Edict) in Jaipur distrct of Rajasthan.

The Minor Pillar Edicts

The Minor Pillar Edicts are four in number and they were discovered in the following places as stated below.

(1) The Sarnath Edict, at Sarnath (ancient Risipattana or Mrigadava, Deer Park), about 3-4 miles north of Banaras in Uttar Pradesh;

(2) The Kaushambi Edict, occurring on the Allahabad Ashokan Pillar referred to before;

(3) The Sanchi Edict, near the Southern entrance to the great Sanchi Stupa in former Bhopal state, now in Madhya Pradesh;

(4) The Queen’s Edict, occuring on the Allahabad Ashokan Pillar, referred to before.

Two commemorative Minor Pillar Inscriptions were discovered at.

(1) Rummindei (reminding us of Lumbini village or forest where Gautama Buddha was born), being north of Padaria and Bhagwanpur in the Nepalese Tarai, about a few miles from the Indian district of Basti, and (2) Nigliva, also in the Nepalese Tarai, north of the District of Basti.

VI. The Cave (dedicative) Inscriptions.

The Barabar Hill Cave (Dedicative) Inscriptions were incised in caves excavated in hills at Barabara (called, most probably, Gorathagiri), some miles to the north of Gaya in South Bihar.

More than a century and a quarter ago began the decipherment of Ashokan Inscriptions discovered till then. (Since Hultzsch’s edition of Ashoka’s Inscriptions (in corp Ins Indicarum Vol. 1) published in 1925, there have been new discoveries of some edicts,) e.g. at Erragudi (M.R.E. I and R.E. I-XIII) in 1929, at Raichur district (Govimath and Palkigundu M.R.E. I) in 1931, at Rajula-Mandagiri (some miles away from Erragudi M.R.E. I.) in 1953, and at Gujarra (in old Datia state in M.P, M.R.E. I) in 1954..

A class of people called Brahmins did not like Ashoka’s works. Sending of Dhammadutas to foreign countries, the construction of large stupas, viharas, hospitals and caves, the erection of pillars and inscriptions engraving animal symbols were new to some other people. Thousands of artists were employed for these wonderful works gradually, he won the hearts of common people. H.G. Wells states,.If there were a scientist like Aristotle with Ashoka, no doubt the emperor would have established many scientific research^[134] institutions..

The words of Ashoka himself may help us to assess his historic role. He said, “Wherever I am, whether in the dining hall and restroom, or in bedroom, my officials are free to inform me of the people’s problems whether I issue oral orders or through the ministers and secretaries; any point of dispute or disagreement should be reported to me” I am not satisfied with any amount of work, and like to continue to exist energies for the good and gain of everybody. I consider it my bounden duty to take care and in the interest of all living creatures. Due to my industrious nature and alertness of mind, I do not have my personal work, except the work of the people. Whatever I do is to free my life from the debts of life by caring for all living^[135] beings..

Emperor Ashoka is said to have ruled for a fairly long time, for his regime seems to have lasted from 270 B.C or 269 B.C to 234 B.C or 233 B.C. According to Buddhist tradition, “in the life of Ashoka two important events had great impact on his mind. The first was the coronation and the second was the conversion to Buddhism. He was not so much impressed by the first event, as he was impressed by the second”. Throughout his life after conversion to Buddhism, Ashoka the great followed the policy of ahimsa (non-violence). He abolished the slaughter or mutilation of animals in his kingdom. He promoted the concept of vegetarianism. He sent missionaries to far off places to propagate the ideals of Buddhism and inspire people to live by the teachings of Lord Buddha. He even engaged his son and daughter to carry out the duties of Buddhist missionaries. Emperor Ashoka built thousands of Stupas and Viharas for Buddhist followers. One of such Stupas, the Great Sanchi Stupa has been declared as a world heritage site by UNESCO. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath has been adopted as the national emblem of the modern Indian republic. His wheel of righteousness, known as.Ashoka Chakra. features on the national flag of India Ashoka himself was a great philanthropist and his benevolent activities rightly earned him the title.Devanampriya Priyadarshi..

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

The Pilgrimage of Buddhism, James Bissett Pratt, p. 106.

[2]:

The Age of Imperial Unity, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, p. 71.

[3]:

The Outline of History, H.G. Wells, p. 40.

[4]:

History of Civilization in Ancient India, Ramesh Chander Dutt, Vol. III, p. 1.

[5]:

Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, R. K Mookerjee, p. 14.

[6]:

Panchamo Paricchedo (Part five-Theragatha)

[7]:

Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, Romila Thapar, p. 20

[8]:

Ashokavadana, P.T.S., p. 337.

[9]:

Divyavadana, P.T.S., p. 323.

[10]:

Asoka and His Inscriptions, B. M. Barua, p. 36.

[11]:

Psalms of the Early Buddhists, Henry Frowde, p. 133.

[12]:

Asoka and His Inscriptions, B. M. Barua, p. 33.

[13]:

Avanthirathang Bhujato Pitara Dinnamattano. So Ashoka Kumaro he Vjjayeni gamamapura. Mahavamsa, 13/8.

[14]:

Mahavamsa (Hindi Tr.), B. A. Kausalayan, p. 64.

[15]:

The Mountains near Bhilsa.

[16]:

Asoka and his Inscriptions, B. M. Barua, p. 52.

[17]:

Divyavadana, P.T.S., p. 326.

[18]:

Mahavamsa, P.T.S., XII, 1-8, pp. 82-86.

[19]:

Vasudev Upadhyaya, who repeats the views of minor again and again which does not agree with Mahabharata.

[20]:

Mahavamsa (Hindi Tr.), B.A. Kausalayan, p. 21.

[21]:

Bauddha Dhamma and Bihar, Haraballav Tripathi, p. 167.

[22]:

All those signs, wherein he would certainly become an Arhant.

[23]:

Mahavamsa, (Hindi Tr.), B.A. Kausalayan, p. 23.

[24]:

Devanam piyasa Vachanenasavat mahamatta, vataviya (;) ye heta dutiyaye deviye dane ambavadika va almeng va dana gahe va yevapi angne, Kichi ganiyati take deviye she nami (1) Hevang (vi) na (ti), dana gahe diviyeti teeevalmatu Kiluvakiye, which means with the permission of king devanampriya all make maha mattas are told to let the second queen kaluvaki, the mother of Teeval offer any gift may it be the mango grove, vihar or alms giving centre or anything else, It should be considered as her own dana or gift. That is why the second queen, the mother of Teeval makes this prayer (Allahabad pilar-queens gift Edicts).

[25]:

Asoka and His Inscriptions, B. M. Barua, p. 53.

[26]:

Mahavamsa, P.T.S., p. 71.

[27]:

Divyavadana, P.T.S., p. 319.

[28]:

Ibid, p. 407.

[29]:

Yuan Chawang’s Travels in India, T. Walter, vol. 1, p. 69.

[30]:

Divyavadana, P.T.S., p. 406.

[31]:

Ashoka’s Dhamma, R.K. Mookerjee, p. 8.

[32]:

Divyavadana, P.T.S., p. 316.

[33]:

Gupta inscriptions, Prof. Fleet, p. 225 E.I. Vol. VII, p. 103.

[34]:

In the Samyutta Nikaya II, p. 19, the primitive dwellers of mountains are rightly called Tivaras.

[35]:

May be first also.

[36]:

H.L. Eggermount.

[37]:

Asoka’s Edicts, A. C. Sen, p. 19.

[38]:

A Concise History of the Indian people, H.G. Rawlinson, p. 371.

[39]:

Bihar Through the Ages, Ranganath Ramachandra Diwakar, p. 61.

[40]:

A monk until he is fully ordained, is called a Shramana.

[41]:

Dhammapada, Appamada Vagga, P.T.S., p. 21-75.

[42]:

Mahavamsa, (Hindi Tr.), B. A. Kausalayan, p. 23.

[43]:

Every Buddhist monk has two preceptors, the chief is called Upadhyaya, and the other is called ncharya.

[44]:

Mahavamsa, (Hindi Tr.), B. A. Kausalayan, p. 27.

[45]:

Ibid. p. 28.

[46]:

Mahavamsa, P.T.S., XII, 1, p. 82.

[47]:

The Cambridge History of India, Rapson Edward James, Vol. I, p. 102.

[48]:

The Outline of History, H.G. Wells, p. 401.

[49]:

A Records of Buddhist practices, Translations of I-tsing, Takasuku, p. 73.

[50]:

First Emperor of Liang dynasty, Wuti or Hsiao yes, p. 205.

[51]:

Giles History, Chinese Letters 1901, p. 133 and 1903, p. 236.

[52]:

Indian Antiquties, Buhler, Vol. VI, p. 154.

[53]:

Hinduism and Buddhism, C. Eliot, Vol. I, p. 265.

[54]:

Se devangna piye hevang aha: adhi kani adhatiyani vasanil ya hakang upasake no tu kho yekang savaccharang pakante 1 hasangl satireke chu kho Sabachare yang maya sanghe upayo te vadhanca me pakante Imina cha kalen amisa ye munisa pathamo Yergudisilalekh.

[55]:

First inscription of Brahmagiri.

[56]:

Introduction to the Edicts of Ashoka, G. Srinivasa Murti p. 12.

[57]:

Edicts of Ashoka, G. Srinivasa Murti, Introduction, p. xxv.

[58]:

Ramayana, VII, p. 113-14..

[59]:

Asoka and His Inscriptions, B. M. Barua, p. 225.

[60]:

“Treat it as a form of Rajadhamma, or as a form of Buddhist Upasaka dharma, or even as a form of Universal religion, This position remains unaltered”, B. M. Barua.

[61]:

In those days Bauddha Dhamma was known by the name “Dhamma Vinaya” the word “Buddha” is found in many inscriptions.

[62]:

Buddhist India, T. W. Rhys Davids, p. 225.

[63]:

.It was the Dhamma for laymen, as generally held in India but in the form, and with the modification, adopted by the Buddhist.-Buddhist India, T. W. Rhys Davids, p. 105.

[64]:

Jataka (Hindi Tr.), B.A. Kausalayan, Vol. IV, pp. 275, 453.

[65]:

Asoka and His Inscriptions, B. M. Barua, p. 265.

[66]:

Swamikena (in Pali Samiken) Digha Nikaya, part III, p. 190. Sarnikena bhariya Pachupatthatabba.

[67]:

Pali Nitturiyang Mahaniddesa Atthakatha, Attadanda Sutta.

[68]:

Digha Nikaya, P.T.S., part III, p. 179.

[69]:

Majjhima Nikaya, P.T.S., part I, pp. 339-413.

[70]:

Ibid, part III, p. 268.

[71]:

Rock Edicts II R.E. XII P.E. II. VII (Barabar).

[72]:

Asoka and His Inscriptions, B. M. Barua, p. 283.

[73]:

Digha Nikaya, P.T.S., part III, p. 59.

[74]:

Ibid, part III, p. 62.

[75]:

Yuan Chawang’s Travels in India, T. Watter.s, Vol. II, p. 20.

[76]:

Ibid, p. 22-23.

[77]:

Guide to Takshashila, John Marshal, p. 17.

[78]:

Rajatrangini,Kalhana, ch. I, p. 9.

[79]:

Girnar Inscription.

[80]:

Sarnath Pillar Inscription.

[81]:

Ye Bhante! Sangha samage Kate, bhukkunangcha bhikkuninanachati papotike chandamsuriyi ke ye sangham, bhakhati bhikkhuva bhikkhuni va odata! Schism pillas inscription, Ashokan Inscriptions, R.G. Basak, p. 146.

[82]:

Concise History of the Indian People, H.G. Rawlinson, p. 58.

[83]:

Bihar Through the Ages, Ranganath Ramachandra Diwakar, p. 195.

[84]:

A mountain near Hardwar.

[85]:

Mahavamsa, P.T.S., XXI, p. 34.

[86]:

Mahavamsa, P.T.S., XXI, p. 35.

[87]:

Ibid, p. 36.

[88]:

Jataka, (Hindi Tr.), B. A. Kausalayan, pp. 37, 117, 438.

[89]:

Mahavamsa, P.T.S., XXI, p. 35.

[90]:

Buddhacharya, Rahul Sankrityayan, Bhumika, p. 6.

[91]:

Theravada is also knwon as Hinayana, Sarvasthivada etc. are its various branches. Since it makes analytic, it is called Vibhajjavada in Pali which means learn any phenomenon by separating and dividing into small division.

[92]:

(1) Artha dyana (knowledge of economics) (2) Dharma Dyana (knowledge of religion) (3) Nirukthi Dyana (knowledge of renunciation) (4) Pratibha Dyana (knowledge of consciousness).

[93]:

Fifth treatise of the Abhidhamma Pitka.

[94]:

Mahavamsa, P.T.S., XXI, p. 71.

[95]:

At Peshawar and Rawalpindi in Punjab (Punjab).

[96]:

Khandesh, to the south of river Narmada.

[97]:

Northern part of Mysore Princely state.

[98]:

Coastal areas from Bombay (present Mumbai) to Surat.

[99]:

Bacteria.

[100]:

Burma or present Pagu.

[101]:

Rock Edicts, No. 13.

[102]:

Ptolemy II Philadlphus of Egypt (B.C. 285-247).

[103]:

Antigonus Gonatas of Mecedonia (B.C. 276-235).

[104]:

Magas of Cyrenne (B.C. 300-250).

[105]:

Alexander of Epirus (B.C. 272-255) or Alexander of Corinth (B.C. 252-244).

[106]:

Sanghamitra’s husband or Ashoka’s nephew (sister’s son).

[107]:

Mahavamsa, P.T.S., XXI, p. 32.

[108]:

Mahavamsa, P.T.S., XXI, p. 33.

[109]:

James Princep.

[110]:

Oxford History of India, Vincent Smith, pp. 103-104.

[111]:

Phraseology and style of Asoka and His inscriptions, B. M. Barua, ch. I, p. x.

[112]:

Asoka’s Edicts, A. C. Sen, p. 32.

[113]:

Rock Edicts, II of R.E. XIII.

[114]:

Antiochus II, The King of western Asia and Syria.

[115]:

Asoka and His Inscriptions, B. M. Barua, p. 64.

[116]:

Rock Edicts, X, XI, XIV.

[117]:

Ibid, V.

[118]:

Ibid, V and VII.

[119]:

Minor Rock Edicts, I.

[120]:

Queens Edicts.

[121]:

S.R.E.I.

[122]:

Minor Rock Edicts, I & II.

[123]:

Major Rock Edicts.

[124]:

Political History of Ancient India, H. C. Raychaudhuri, p. 343.

[125]:

The Outline of History, H.G. Wells, p. 159.

[126]:

Pillar Edicts, VII.

[127]:

Minor Rock Edicts.

[128]:

Nagarjun Hill caves Inscription.

[129]:

Asoka’s Edicts, A. C. Sen, p. II.

[130]:

Rock Edicts, I.

[131]:

Ibid, XIII.

[132]:

Ibid, III and V.

[133]:

Ashokan Inscriptions, (Ed.), R. Basak, pp. xi-xiv.

[134]:

Rock Edicts, VIII.

[135]:

The Outline of History, H.G. Wells, p. 170.