Part 2 - Mahanadi Delta region: Sub Period I: 300-600 A.D.

[Full title: Mahanadi Delta region: Sub Period I: 300-600 A.D. (Local Lineage Formation)]

It is generally accepted by the scholars that from the 3^rd, 4^th century A.D. onwards the process of sustainable political development was started in Kalinga region. This is reflected by the availability of large numbers royal grants from several ruling lineages donating land to Brahmanas and religious establishments. These grants are the chief source for reconstruction of the political activity of this age.

In the post Kharavela era we got some descendants of the Mahameghavahana rulers from their inscriptions. The inscriptions in the lower story of Manchapuri cave throw some light on the post Kharavela rule. N.k.Sahu has read out that inscription as: ‘the cave of Arya Mahameghavahana Maharaja Kudepasiri, the overlord of Kalinga’.^[1] Another inscription in the same story of the Manchapuri cave states ‘Kumara Vadukhasa’^[2] , but the relationship with Kharavela or Kudepasiri is not certainly known. The Guntupalli inscription refers to Sada, a ruler who ruled over Kalinga and Mahisaka in the early centuries of the Christian era.^[3] The inscription found from Velpuru in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, where the name of the illustrious Aira Maharaja Manasada, the son of Hariti (i.e. the queen belonging to the Hariti gotra) is found who ruled around the first half of the 2^nd century A.D.^[4] his epithet Aira has resemblance with Kharavela inscriptions. He may be the last ruler of the Chedi dynasty.

Different sources found in Orissa for the Satavahana rule. From the 2^nd century A.D. onwards due to the Satavahanas, Chedi rule came to an end. Several coin hoards like Sisupalgarh, Sangharama, Salihundam and Ramatirtha proves the Satavahana occupation in Orissa. The inscription of Siri-Pulumavi Vasisthiputra at Nasik refers the extent of the empire of Gautamiputra Satakarni. It includes the Kanhagiri, Malaya, Mahendra, Setagiri and Chakora of Kalinga was under his rule.^[5]

After the Satavahanas, various sources refer to the rule of foreign Murundas. The coin hoards of Kusana and Puri-Kusana found in large parts of Orissa. The gold coin discovered from the Sisupalgarh bearing the legend as ‘Maharaja-rajadhiraja-Dharmadamadharasya’.^[6] According to Altekar Dharmadamadhara was a king of Murunda family ruled over a part of Bihar and Orissa.^[7]

The Bhadrak inscription of Gana, placed in 2^nd half of 3^rd century A.D., using epithet Maharaja. It says that in the regnal year of 8 of the illustrious Gana, by Mulajapa are given to 3 idols and also 80 (adha) Vapas of lands.^[8] N.K.Sahu opines that here Maharaja is used to denote the subordinate position of the king Gana under the Murunda king.^[9] Here B.P. Sahu refers that ‘the point of inference, however, is the emergence of private ownership of land with direct control established over surplus production.^[10]

In the 2^nd half of the fourth century A.D. Samudragupta’s Allahabad pillar inscription refers several small principalities of Orissa. In line 19 and 20 the inscription described the campaign against 12 kingdoms of Eastern coast and Deccan.^[11] Mahendra of Kosala (Daksina Kosala, the modern Raipur, Bilashpur and Shambalpur tracts of Chhattisgarh and Orissa), Vyaghraraja of Mahakantara (Jharkhand area of Ganjam and Vishakapattanam district or Jeypore forest area of Orissa), Mahendragiri of Pistapura (Pithapuram in Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh), Svamidatta of Kottura (Kothoor in Ganjam district), Damana of Erandpalla (Erandapalli near Srikakulam, Andhara Pradesh), and Kubera of Devarastra (Yellamanchili tract in Visakhapattanam district, Andhra Pradesh) are identified by D.K.Ganguly.^[12] Primarily these kings were under the sway of Gupta rule but later on released on condition to continue by accepting the Gupta suzerainty.

This event largely influenced the state formation process in the entire Orissa. Samudragupta launched his campaign not through the earlier used route of Balasore, Cuttack and Puri districts, accepted by the Mahapadmananda and Asoka in pre-Christian centuries. But he followed the forest area of western and southern part of Orissa. The influence of the Gupta campaign persisted as evident by the use of Gupta Era in some inscriptions till the mid-seventh century A.D. But scholars like N.K. Sahu and others argued that mentioning of Gupta-Era does not indicative of Gupta Rule.^[13]

In southern Orissa we find local state formation was started after the Gupta campaign. In the Vamsadhara and Nagavali river valleys and adjoining parts of southern Ganjam districts of Orissa and Srikakulam district, Vishakhapattanam and east Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh formation of kingdom was located in around forth to sixth century. The Pedda-Dugam plates of Maharaja^[14] Satrudamana, dated ninth regnal year and issued from Simhapura near Srikakulam, is found amongst the early kingdom. This grants showed that the king owed allegiance to an unnamed overlord, perhaps a Gupta king, bhattarakapada-parigrhita. But this epithet also frequently used in inscription to referring the deities.^[15] He further stated: bhagavato-Damanesvara-svaminah-padanudhyatah that he mediates on the feet of revered lord Damanesvara. U.P.Singh appears with view that Damanesvara was probably Siva in Linga form, named after the king, the installer.^[16]

Around the same time or a little later in south Ganjam and Srikakulam area we find references of king Visakhavarman, the Pitrbhaktas, Matharas and Vasisthas. D.C. Sircar opines that they are members of separate dynastic groups,^[17] or matrimonially related. The Pitrbhaktas, differently viewed as designation (devoted to the father), but not a ruling dynasty.^[18] Many scholars taken Matharas and Vasisthas are as ruling groups wherein the other two were included.^[19] They may be of different branches of the same family but little evidences are found concerning their origin. Several kings among this ruling group were claimants of sovereignty over Kalinga. According to D.K.Ganguly parts of Ganjam, Srikakulam, Vishakapattanam, and East Godavari districts were possibly under their rule at that time.^[20] In the inscriptions of Visakhavarman, the Pitrbhaktas, Matharas and Vasisthas, we find several foci of political importance of around 4^th and 5^th century A.D. The Koroshanda plates of Visakhavarman were issued from Sripura (identified with Siripuram in Vishakapattanam, or Batiya-Siripura, near Koroshanda in Ganjam district.

The inscription of Pitrbhakta as issued mostly from Sunagara, Varddhamanapura, Simhapura and Sarapalli were mostly situated in Ganjam and Srikakulam districts.^[21] The epithet found in Baranga and Dhavalapeta plates of Umavarman in addition to Kaling-adhipati in Brhatprostha and Temburu plates. The same use we find in Komarti plate of Candvarman and with amplification, Sakala-Kaling-adhipati, in Chicakole and Baranga plates of Nandaprabhanjanavarman.

The inscriptions of the Matharas found in Pistapura (Pithapuram, Godavari district), Simhapura (Singupuram) and Vijayapura. Kings like Saktivarman, Prabhanjanavarman and Anantasaktivarman used the title of, Kaling-adhipati and Sakala-Kaling-adhipati in case of Prabhanjanavarman found.

The two inscriptions of Anantavarman (found in Srikakulam and Vishakhapattanam dist.) referred him to Vasistiha-kula and with the title Kalingadhipati. This further inscribed him as the son of Maharaja Gunuvarman and grandson of Maharaja Prabhanjanavarman. The Srungavarapukota plate of Pithapuram described Anantavarman’s father as Devarastr-adhipati. This epithet, lord of Devarastra, has resemblance with Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta.

The inscriptions of the king Visakhavarman, the Pitrbhaktas, Matharas and Vasisthas does not generally appears with clear affiliations to the religions. In cases of king Candvarman and Nanda-Prabhanjanavarman, epithet Paramabhagavata is found, which indicates the Vaisnava affiliation of the Pitrbhaktas.

The Mathara king Prabhanjanavarman’s Ningondi plates appears with bhagavato-svami-Narayana-pad-anudhyatah,^[22] the Andhavarman plates of Anantasaktivarman refers to be a devotee of the lotus feet of the lord Narayana.^[23] The inscription also refers that the king inherited body, kingdom, prosperity and prowess through the favour of the feet of his revered father who was a great devotee of gods.^[24]

Vasistiha king Anantavarman, in his inscription speaks of Saiva affiliation by holding epithet Parama-Mahesvara. The prasastis found in Visakhavarman, the Pitrbhaktas, Matharas and Vasisthas inscription were all significantly eulogised the king and his predecessors as most of them are described as great donors of land gold and thousands of cows. ‘Vibhrat-bhuhiranya-go-sahasr-adi-anekadana-dharm-abhiratah’, found in Siripuram plates of Anantavarman. His plates also claims of greatness of the king have been extended by his reverence towards the gods, the twice-born and teachers (Deva-Dvijati-Guru).^[25]

The end of 5^th century A.D. we witnessed the emergence of the Early Gangas of the Kalinganagara. Anantavarman-Codaganga’s Korni and Visagapattanam plate also referring them as the immigrants from Karnataka.^[26] The early grants of Gangas (from no-1 to no-40 of their inscriptions) use the era named as Ganga or Gangeya Era, but the later Gangas (from Mandasa plate of Anantavarman no-45 onwards) are generally dated in the Saka Era.^[27] There is a great deal of controversy among the scholar with the commencement of the Ganga rule.^[28] It ranges from roughly 4^th to 9^th century. The Ganga rule extended from the 5^th century A.D. to the 15^th century A.D. Their inscriptions, altogether 77, could be divided into three sub-periods. Inscription no 1-13 belongs to 6^th to mid-7^th. Century A.D., inscription no 14-40, belongs to late 7^th to 10^th Century A.D. and inscription no 41 to 77 falls into the late 10^th to mid-12^th century A.D.

In the first phase of our discussion, we find Indravarman I, appears as the founder of the Ganga rule and Ganga Era. Early inscriptions found in south Ganjam district of Orissa and Srikakulam and Vishakhapattanam districts of Andhra Pradesh. The issuing places are mostly from Kalinganagara (identified with modern Mukhalingam), rests two are from Dantapura (often identified with Rajamundri, near Srikakulam) and Saumyavana. Most of the kings of phase I of the Gangas, were of claimants of ruled over Kalinga, Indravarman I and Samantavarman have taken the epithet of Tri-Kaling-adhipati (Lord of Trikalinga).^[29] His Jirjingi plates describe Indravarman I as ‘the sun in the Firmament of the spotless Ganga family, whose feet were resplendent with bright sheen of the precious stones, contained in the crowns of vassals who were defeated in many battles of four tusked elephants.’^[30] Another ruler Hastivarman in his Urlam plate claimed that he ‘crushed the combination of enemies by strokes of the point of his scimitar.’^[31] Both his Narasimhapalli plate and Urlam plates he claimed to be the lord of Sakala-kalinga. The early eastern Gangas were surrounded by Sailodbhabas of Kongoda in the north and eastern Chalukyas in the south.

The emblem found in Early Ganga inscription is the Saiva bull motif. Indravarman in his prasasti says–he is that king whose sins have been removed as a result of his accumulation of religious merit by worshipping the supreme lord, which is Siva. King Samantavarman onwards we find the mention of lord Siva-Gokarna or Gokarnasvamin established on mount Mahendra by whose worship kings have removed sins of kali age. King Samantavarman also praised Siva as the cause of the creation, maintenance and dissolution of the world.^[32] Post Samantavarman grants were speaks of the lotus-feet of Gokarnasvamin and Hastivarman and his successor known by Parama-Mahesvara, which was absent in Indravarman’s inscriptions.^[33]

Like the Gangas of kapilanagara, another branch of the Gangas, known as Gangas of Svetaka, the upper Ganjam area) were the worshippers of Gokarnasvamin of the Mahendra Mountain.^[34] Relationship between these two branches was sheltered in shadows, but probably enjoyed semi-independent status under the main dynasty.^[35]

In around the end of 6^th century, the inscription of a king named Prithivi-Maharaja, cantered around pistapura in Kalinga, claimed of having control over a circle of subordinate rulers. The Tandivada plates of Prithivi-maharaja were found from Pistapura while his other plates like Parlakimedi grants issued from Viranja-nagara (Jaipur near Cuttack district), are the indicators of expansion of his dominations. He is describes as the son of Vikramendra and the grandson of Maharaja Ranadurjaya, and of Srirama-kasypa gotra.^[36] Prithivi-Maharaja is described as Parama-Brahmanya (greatly devoted to the Brahmanas). Scholars suggested that the ancestors of Prithivi-Maharaja may have been the subordinate rulers of the Visnukundins.^[37] Durjaya or Ranadurjaya is often found in inscriptions of 11^th and 13^th century, and according to Panchmukhu, Ranadurjaya belonged to the Chola family.

An inscription found near Khandipada Nuapalli village in Ganjam district, which reveals records of endowments made by Sri-Charamparaja. On palaeographic ground this plate possibly issued around the end of 6^th or beginning of the 7^th century A.D.^[38] His inscriptions bears the seal of a bull with an invocation to the three eyed god–Trilocana-Siva who is Lokesvara or lord of the world. Charamparaja took the title of Parama-Mahesvara, who mediates on the lotus feet of Hara, i.e. Siva.^[39]

In central and Northern Orissa, we find an image (Siva) inscription, near Asanpat village, in Kendujhar district. Roughly dated around 3^rd or 4^th century A.D., the king named, Maharaja-Satrubhanja, ruler of a kingdom Vindhyatavi, is mentiond in this inscription. He is found worshipping an eight armed image of Siva in Tandava posture, the earliest mention of Nataraja Siva in Orissa^[40] . The king is compared with Dhanada -the god of the wealth and presented himself as a great donator. He donated thousand of cows to several countries named Pataliputra, Pundravardhna, Gaya, Taamralipti etc, and hiranyas in mathas for Brahmacarins, Carakas, Parivrajakas, Nirgranthas, Bhiksus and Varnantakas. He is claimed to be mentioned in the Mahabharata, Purana, Itihasa, Vyakarana, Upasiksa, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Chandas, Sruti, Ved-opakarana and Sankhya.^[41] His eulogy reveals that he was born in Naga family and son of Maharaja-Manabhanja and Mahadevi-Damyanti and of Sapisa gotra.^[42] Scholars are not found any solid ground to associate him with the later Bhanja dynasty.

In another inscription found in Kendujhar district, the Sitabhinji inscription of Maharaja-Disabhanja found below a tempera painting of a royal procession on a rock shelter known as Ravana-chaya. D.C. Sircar suggested that the king belonged to the 8^th or 9^th century A.D. and Maharaja-Disabhanja might be the early representatives of the Bhanja family of Khinjali Mandala.^[43]

In Jayarampur village of Baleswar district we found the 5^th-6^th century inscription of Maharajadhiraja-Gopcandra. In his first regnal year a donation of a village in dandabhukti was made by Sri-Mahasamanta-Maharaja Acyuta, a subordinate to Maharajadhiraja-Sri-Gopcandra. It is known from this inscription of donation that king Gopcandra was the son of Dhanacandra and Sri-Giridevi. Gopcandra’s inscription appears with the motif of a bull and he is known to have taken the title of Parama-Mahesvara. He claims of the arranger of proper social order of varnas and asramas.^[44]

Inscriptional records show that till the downfall of the Gupta rule in around middle of 6^th century A.D., parts of central and northern Orissa was under the Gupta suzerainty. The plates of the Vigraha rulers found in this area show evidences of Gupta domination. Maharaja Dharmaraja, a donor of the Sumandala plates (Ganjam dist), descendant of Maharaja Ubhaya and Va(ba)ppadevi, is described as meditating on the feet of (as subordinate) Prthivivigrahika-bhattaraka, as the ruler of Kalinga Rastra (Gupta year 250). His Sumandala plates Prthivivigraha presented as bearer of torana emblem with Maharaja-Dharma epithet.^[45]

Another ruler belonging to the Prthivivigrahika was Lokavigraha. In his Kanas plate (Delang, Puri dist) issued from Utida/Mutida visaya in Daksina Tosali, dated the Gupta year 280, claimed as a ruler of Tosali. Sumandala plates of Maharaja Dharmaraja was issued from Padmakholi (near Narayankhol of ex Khallikot state), which became the name of the kingdom and also as the capital.

The inscription of Maharaja Sambhuyasas, who belongs to the Maudgala/Mudgala kula, and Mana lineage or vamsa, bear witness of his identities in Patiakella plate (Erbang village, Puri dist.). Maharaja Sambhuyasas is also mentioned by his subordinate ruler Maharaja Sivaraja, found in Cuttack district. Maharaja Sambhuyasas describes as Parama-Mahesvara, and Parama-Daivata-Adhidaivata.^[46]

The subordinate rulers of Bengal king Sasanka was in charge of Uttara and Daksina Tosali. Dandabhukti, modern Medinipur and Baleswar district, was ruled by Sriman Maha-Pratihara Subhakirti. His Midnapur plate dated 8^th regnal year of Gauda king Sasanka. Another copper plate of Somadatta found in the regnal year 19^th of king Sasanka. In Badkhuri, Baleswar district, two other plates of him found of his 15^th regnal year. A descendant of Somadatta, named also as Bhanudatta found in copper plates of Badkhuri, Baleswar district. In Midnapur plate Somadatta was claiming as the ruler of Dandabhukti and Utkala and assumed the title of Sri-Samanta-Maharaja-Somadatta. In this grant we find prasasti was offered to his overlord Sasanka. Where, Somadatta mentioned his overlord’s name, with the titles as Baladhikrta, Antaranga and Mahasandhivigrahika.^[47] He also portray him as meditating at the feet of an unnamed lord as Parama-Daivat-Adhidaivata (a great devotee of the gods and the supreme god) and Parama-Bhattaraka (one supremely entitled to reverence). In the Soro plate of Bhanudatta, we find the titles of Bhanudatta as Maharaja and Mahapratihara. His Kanas and Baleswar plate we find the title of Mahasamanta. U.P.Singh has suggested that the ruler has nominal allegiance to the authority of their overlord.^[48]

In west Orissa, the Bastar and Koraput area was under the rule of the Nalas. In around the end of 5^th century Nala inscriptions have been found in Koraput district (2), Raipur district in Madhya Pradesh (1) and Amaravati district in Maharastra (1). These kings described them as Nala-Nrpati-Kulanvaya or belonging to the family of king Nala. They used the emblem of Tri-Patak-Dhvaja, the hand with three figures. A sizeable number of gold coins are also found in Edenga village in Bastar districts. The names of the kings coming out of these coins are Varaharaja, Bhavadatta and Arthapati.^[49] The Kesaribeda plate of Sri-Maharaja-Arthapati was issued from Puskari (Podagarh region of Koraput district). The mention of Sri-Maharaja Bhavattavarman, the father or grandfather of Arthapati is found in Rithapur grant, issued from Nagardhana in Nagpur district. This Nala grants shows evidence that they have made successful campaigns towards the Vakataka territory.

The Nalas ruled mainly in the 5^th and 6^th century A.D. over Koraput and Kalahandi districts of Orissa and Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh. B.V. Krishna Rao mentions that the extent of Nala territory ‘it seems to have delimited by the river Veni-Ganga (Wain Ganga) on the west, the Indravati on the south, the great mountain range known as the Malayagiri or the Eastern Ghats on the east and the Meikal (Mekala) range in the north.’^[50] Their original capital was probably at Pushkari, identified with Podagadh in Koraput district. The Nalas claims that they were the descendants of the epic king Nala of Nisada and are mentioned in the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas as kings of Kosala.^[51]

Thirty two coins have been found of the Nala kings from Edenga. The large number of coins of Varaharaja (29 in number), evidently proves that he was ruled autonomously. King Bhavadattavarman’s Rithpur copper plate, issued from Nandivardhan, near Nandur in Yeotmal taluk of the central provinces. It shows that the Vakataka king Narendrasena was subjugated by Bhavadattavarman and Nandivardhan was captured by Bhavadatta.^[52] During Bhavadattas reign Nala rule was extended from Berar to Bilaspur and Koraput.^[53]

King Arthapatiraja lost control over the Vakataka area, as he issued his Kesaribeda plates from Puskari. Probably he was defeated by the Vakataka ruler Prthvisena II. His Balaghat plates shows ‘being receptor of splendour and tolerance, which raised (his) sunken family.^[54] The Podagarh inscription of king Skandavarman reveals that he recovered the lost sovereignty of the Nala dynasty and reinstated the deserted capital Pushkari.^[55]

The grants of Arthapati describes: Mahesvarra-Mahasen-Atisrsta-Rajya-Vibhavah, that the king that one upon whom the glory of royalty has been bestowed by Mahesvara and Mahasena, which indicates that the king dedicated his kingdom and his wealth to these gods.^[56]

We found the early Nala kings were Saivas and the later Skandavarman and Vilasatunga were found Vaisnava affiliations. In Podagarh inscription of king Skandavarman, the construction of a Visnu temple is found with assignments of large amounts of fees or Daksinas for the priests and the gift of a holding (pura) for purusa. Here purusa refers to Visnu with a eulogy towards Hari is also found.^[57] Like the Podagarh inscription, the Rajim stone inscription of Vilasatunga refers the erection of a Visnu temple.

The collapse of the Nala rule started with the defeat of Skandavarman. The Rajim stone inscription of Vilasatunga refers to three Nala kings, namely Prthiviraja, Viruparaja and Vilasatunga. On palaeographical ground it placed around 8^th or 9^th century A.D.

In an inscription found in Terasinga village near Tel river bank in Kalahandi district of Maharaja Tustikara assigned to the first half of the 6^th century A.D. The first plate indicates that the grant was issued by Kasthubhsayya, from Parvatadvaraka, a mother of a king named Sobhonnaraja. D.C.Sircar opines that the name of the king mentioned in this endorsement was a minor son of

Tustikara and Parvatadvaraka was a secondary capital of their kingdom.^[58] Tustkara thus seems to have been a minor king ruling around Tarabharamaka and Parvatadvaraka. In Terasinga plates of king Tustikara, it is found that the king as to be the devotee of the goddess Stambhesvari. King Sobhonnaraja, is also found with that same devotion - Stambhesvari-Pada-Bhakta.

In Daksina Kosala (Raipur, Bilashpur and Sambalpur district of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh) the inscriptions of Sarabhapuriya kings found, which are assigned in around 5^th century A.D. The place of issuance of this inscriptions were Sarabhapura (Sarabhagarh in Sambalpur district), Tilakesvara and Sripura (in Raipur district). The originator of this ruling lineage was the king Sarava, identified with Saravaraja, mentioned in the Eran inscription of Goparaja, dated Gupta year 191(A.D. 510), Contemporary to the Gupta king Bhanugupta.^[59] Out of the seven known kings from inscriptions king Prasanna is also known from coins found near Salhepali in Raigarh district with Vaisnava emblems. Another king Narendra bears the title of Maharaja, which rarely appears in the case of the others. In their inscriptions the Sarabhapuriya kings described them as having their feet bathed by the waters flowing from the lustre of the crest-jewels in the crowns of the Samantas captured by them.

The Sarabhapuriya kings use the emblem of Gaja-Laksmi with various floral motifs. With the epithet Parama-Bhagavata, Sarabhapuriya kings were praised as great benefactor of lands and cows–Vasi-Vasudha-Go-Pradah.

Sarabhapuriya rule was replaced by the Panduvamsis during the 6^th century. The inscriptions found in Rewa, Raigarh, Raipur and Bilaspur district of Madhya Pradesh and Sambalpur district of Orissa we find the name of the king Tivara, ruled around 560 A.D. D.C.Sircar^[60] is of opinion that there were two Panduvamsi kings named Tivara, one is contemporary of the Visnukundin king Madhavavarman I (2^nd half of 6^th century A.D.) and the other contemporary of the Sailodbhava king Dharmaraja (2^nd half of 7^th century A.D.). The Mala plates of Indraraja issued from Mandaka and the copper charters of Tivara and the Adhabhara plates of Maha-Nannaraja were issued from Sripura which is identified with modern Sirpur in Raipur district. Indraraja of Malga plates, probably son of Sailendra, appears to have been a semi autonomous king. He mentions the title of Samanta without specifying the reference to his overlord. The highest title assumed by the Panduvamsi kings was Maharaja. In the Bamhani plates, we find the title of a paramount ruler (Sarva-Bhauma), whose feet were touched by the Samantas performing obeisance to him. The grants of Mahasiva Tivara found with subordinate title–Samadhi-Gata-Panca-Mahasabda, means one who has obtained five sounds, also referring to have acquired the territorial control over Kosala. King Bharatabala relates himself as belonging to the lineage (anvaya) to the Pandavas and those of Tivara to the Pandu Vamsha. But Maha-Nannaraja relates himself to the family of Sasivamsha. The Senakapat inscription of Sivagupta Balarjuna mentions the name of a subordinate ruler Durgaraksita as the governor of Vindhyan area at the banks of river Barada (Wardha, a tributary of Godavari).

Panduvamsi king Mahasiva Tivara used a Garuda motif in his inscriptions, which proves their Vaisnava affiliation. But a couchant bull and a trident are found in Mahasivagupta’s inscriptions. The grant of Mahasivagupta Balarjuna describes him as Parama-Mahesvara. Both Siva and Visnu were being worshipped by the Panduvamsis.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

N.K.Sahu, Kharavela, Bhubaneswar, 1984, p.353

[2]:

Ibid, p.353

[3]:

D.C.Sircar, ‘an Alleged Inscription of Kharavela’, Journal of the Ancient Indian History. Vol. III. Pts. 1-2, 1969-70. pp.32-34

[4]:

D.C.Sircar, ‘Two Inscriptions from Guntur Districts.’ Epigraphica Indica. Vol. XXXII. Pt.-II, 1957, pp.83, 86-87

[5]:

E.Senart, ‘The Inscriptions in the Cave at Nasik’, Epigraphica Indica. Vol. III, 1905-06, p.60

[6]:

A.S. Altekar, ‘A Unique Kusano-Roman Gold Coin of King Dharmadamadhara (?)’, Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, Vol. XII, Pt.-I 1950, pp.1-4

[7]:

Ibid, p.3

[8]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Bhadrak Inscription of Gana, Regnal Year 8’, Epigraphica Indica, Vol. XXIX, 1951-52, pp.173-74

[9]:

N.K. Sahu, Utkal University History of Orissa, vol. I p.428

[10]:

B.P. Sahu, ‘Ancient Orissa: The Dynamics of Internal Transformation of the Tribal Society.’ in K.M. Srimali; (ed.), Essays in Indian Art, Religion and Society, New Delhi, 1987, p.172

[11]:

J.F. Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. III Calcutta, 1988, pp.7, 11, 19-20

[12]:

Dilip Kumar Ganguly, Historical Geography and the Dynastic History of Orissa up to the Rise of the Imperial Gangas, Calcutta, 1975, pp.156-157

[13]:

N.K. Sahu, Utkal University History of Orissa, Vol-I, Bhubaneswar, 1964, pp.433-44

[14]:

J.F. Fleet generally points out that Maharaja, literally a great king, (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum., Vol. 3, p.10,) a title of paramount sovereignty, find reference in Indo-Greek coins and inscriptions of Kusanas like Kaniska, Huviska and Vasudeva, but right from the Gupta inscriptions onwards it lost its similar connotations. (J.F. Fleet; ed., Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum., Vol. 3, p.17, n3)

[15]:

U.P. Singh, ‘Kings, Brahmanas and Temples in Orissa.’, 1993. p.28, Fn

[16]:

Ibid, p.83

[17]:

D.C. Sircar, in R.C.Majumder, (ed.), The History and Culture of the Indian People, 1951, p.77; Vol 3: 212-14; D.K. Ganguly also of similar view, op.cit., 1975, pp.220-28

[18]:

The epithet may have appears as a legend on the seals of copper plate grants of this particular groups of kings.

[19]:

N.K. Sahu, op. cit., pp.468-70; Dharmanarayan Das, The Early History of Orissa, Calcutta, 1977, p.100-105.; K.C. Panigrahi, History of Orissa (Hindu Period), Cuttack, 1981, p.46; But S.N. Rajguru, (ed.), Inscriptions of Orissa, I, pt. 2, pp.68-69., thinks that all the names were belonged to a single group.

[20]:

D.K. Ganguly, op.cit., 1975, p.49

[21]:

G. Ramdas, “Khorosanda Copper Plates of Visakhavarman”, Epigraphica Indica., 21, 1931-32, p.24; C. R. Krisnamacharlu, ARSIE, 1934-35, pt. 2, para- 2; E.J. Hultzsch, “Brhatprostha Grant of Umavarman”, Epigraphica Indica., 12 (1913-14), p.4; V. Venkataramayya, “Tekkali Plates of Maharaja Umavarman, year 9.”, Epigraphica Indica., 28, (1949-5-), p.301

[22]:

D.C. Sircar, “Ningondi Grant of Prabhanjanavarman”, Epigraphica Indica., 30, Pt.- 3&4, 1953, p.117

[23]:

R. Subrahmanyam, “Andhravarman plates of Anantasaktivarman”, Epigraphica Indica., 28, pt. 4, 1949, p.178, II, 1-2

[24]:

Ibid.

[25]:

R.C. Majumder, ‘Srungavarapukota Plates of Anantavarman, King of Kalinga’, Epigraphica Indica. 23, 1935, 56-61. p.6, II, 5-6

[26]:

Subba Rao, The History of the Eastern Gangas, Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society, 5, Pt. 3&4, 1931: 193-99, 261-76., pp.264-65, differs largely with this view, and he suggested that the Gangas of kalinganagara were originally came from the north, in the Gangetic area of Bengal and Bihar. S.N. Rajguru, (ed.), Inscriptions of Orissa, 5 Volumes, Berhampur and Bhubaneswar, 1958-76, 2, p.345, original homeland was located around Gumsur Taluk in Ganjamand adjacent Phulbani district.

[27]:

Andhavaram grant of Indravarman, no-9, is an exception in this line which defers him as Tumburu Vamsa, relation with the Gangas is not clear, D.K. Ganguly, op. cit, p.237

[28]:

S.N. Rajguru, op. cit., 2 appendix-I

[29]:

Controversial epithet found in Jirjingi plate, but generally identified with kalinga, Kongada and Utkala. H.K. Mahtab, History of Orissa (Cuttack, 1959-60), opines as western part of Orissa and eastern part of Madhya Pradesh. Vivid reference found in D.K. Ganguly, op. cit., p.14-17

[30]:

S.N. Rajguru, op.cit., Vol.II, p.7

[31]:

S.N. Rajguru, op.cit., p.23

[32]:

M. Sharma, and M. Somasekhara, ‘Ponnuturu Plates of Ganga Samantavarman,’ JORM, 11, 1937, p.219, II, 1-4.

[33]:

N.G. Majumder, ‘Narasingapalli Plates of Hastivarman: The year 79.’ Epigraphica Indica., 23, 1935, 62-67, p.65, II, 1-2; E.J. Hultzsch, ‘Urlam Plates of Hastivarman: The year 80,’ Epigraphica Indica, 17, 1923-24: 330-34, p.332.

[34]:

S.N. Rajguru, History of the Gangas, Pt. I, 1968, p.61

[35]:

N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, p.49

[36]:

The kasypa gotra is often found his records but Srirama is not a common found one.

[37]:

R.S. Panchmukhu, ‘Tandivada Grant of Prithvi-Maharaja: 46^th year,’ Epigraphica Indica, 23, 1935, 88-99, p.95; N. Venkataramanayya, ‘Tandivada Plates of Prithvi-Maharaja’, JORM, 9, 1935, p.191

[38]:

J.F. Fleet, (ed.), Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol-3, Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and their Successor, Calcutta, 1888, 1970, p.10, n-4; Sri often found in inscription to denote honorific names of person, deities or place names as illustrious, glorious, venerable, sacred, famous etc.

[39]:

S.N. Rajguru, op.cit., p.325

[40]:

A. Das, ‘Asanapat’, Orissa Historical Research Journal, 13, NO-2, 1965: 1-8., p.1

[41]:

S.N. Rajguru, ‘Jayarampur Copper Plate Inscription of the time of Gopacandra,’ Orissa Historical Research Journal, 11, 1962, 206-29., p.226

[42]:

A. Das, op.cit., p.8; D.C. Sircar, ‘Three Early Medieval Inscriptions’, Epigraphica Indica., 35, Pt-I, 1963, 44-50, p.47-49.

[43]:

D.C. Sircar, in ‘The Bhanjas of Khilinji Mandala’, IQH, 28, NO-3, 1952: 225-31, p.228.

[44]:

S.N. Rajguru, ‘Jayarama Copper Plate, p.226, II 6-7

[45]:

S.N. Rajguru, ‘The Sumandala Copper Plate Inscription of Dharmaraja of the Gupta Sambat 250.’ Orissa Historical Research Journal, I, no-I, 1952, p.66

[46]:

R.D. Banerji, ‘Patiakella Grant of Maharaja Sivaraja [Gupta] Samvat 283.’ Epigraphica Indica. 9, 1907-08, p.287, II, 4-5

[47]:

D.C. Sircar, Alagum Inscription of Anantavarman, Regnal Year 62.’ Epigraphica Indica. 29, Pt-2, 1951, pp.23,174,188

[48]:

U.P. Singh, op.cit. p.43

[49]:

V.V. Mirashi, ‘Gold Coins of the Three Kings of the Nala Dynasty.’ Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, No-1, 1939, p.29-35

[50]:

B.V. Krishna Rao, A History of the Early Dynasties of Andhradesa, Madras, 1942 p.658

[51]:

F.E. Pargiter, The Purana Text of the Dynasties of Kali Age, 1975, p.50-51

[52]:

N.K. Sahu, Utkal University History of Orissa, Vol-I, p-513; The Nalas, OHRL, Vol-XI, No-2, p-37; B.V.Krishna Rao; op.cit, p.664

[53]:

C.B. Patel, Dynastic History of the Nalas, 1990, Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 1990, p.6566

[54]:

F. Kielhorn, ‘Balaghat plates of Prithivisena II’, Epigraphica Indica.-Vol-IX, 1907-1908, p.269

[55]:

C.R. Krishnamacharlu, ‘The Nala inscription at Podagadh, 12^th year’, Epigraphica Indica. Vol.-XXI, p.154; S.N. Rajguru, Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol.1, P-II, p.96

[56]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Kesaribeda Plates of Nala Arthapati Bhattaraka’, Epigraphica Indica. 28, pt.-I 1949, p.13

[57]:

C.R. Krishnamacharlu, ‘The Nala Inscription at Podagarh; 12^th year,’ Epigraphica Indica. 21, 1932, p.155

[58]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Terasingha Plates of Tustkara,’ Epigraphica Indica 30, pt. 7, 1954, p.275

[59]:

V.V. Mirashi, Thakurdiya Plates of Maha-Pravaraja,’ Epigraphica Indica. 22, 1933-34, p.17

[60]:

D.C. Sircar, ‘Bonda Plates of Mahasiva Tivara,year 5,’ Epigraphica Indica. 34, pt.3, 1961, p.112-113