Abstract

The present dissertation paper consists of seven chapters. The first chapter is an introductory chapter where a brief description is prepared on the Brāhmaṇa literature with special reference to their contents and importance.

The Vedas were and are the cultural store house of India. The Brāhmaṇas form a part and parcel of the vast Vedic literature and are generally designated as later Vedic literature. The term ‘Veda’ means ‘knowledge’, as the word is derived from the ٧ vid (to know). The term Veda also denotes the texts containing the most sacred and authoritative knowledge, the texts whose authority can never be questioned. The Brāhmaṇas are the second great class of works that belong to the Veda. One of the meanings of ‘Brāhmaṇa’ is Veda or Veda Mantra. As all the sacrificial works are done by Priest, so, the books where we get the detail accounts of all the sacrificial works and the various performances of the priest are called Brāhmaṇa. The Brāhmaṇa literature is entirely in prose. Brāhmaṇas treat very minutely all the trifling details of all the sacrificial ceremony and are broadly divided in to two groups–i) Vīdhi (percepts) ii) Arthavāda (supplementary passages).

Āpastamba further gives fourfold classification of the Arthavāda as-

1. Nindā (cencure);
2. Praśaṃsā (eulogy);
3. Purākalpa (myths and legends);
4. Parakṛti (achievement of others).

There are several Brāhmaṇas belonging to the four Veda. But, now-adays all the Brāhmaṇas are not available to us. In the domain of Vedic literature, the Brahmanical composition occupies special and important space. There are many depreciatory comments on the contents and literary value of the Brāhmaṇas. As on many occasions, while discussing the critical sacrificial rites; the subject matter of the Brāhmaṇa literature has become very dull and disinteresting. But for this the importance of the Brāhmaṇa literature can never be ignored. The Brāhmaṇas are always given a position of great importance. They not only give us the details of the sacrifices but along with this the Brāhmaṇa literature records our ancient Indian culture and civilization. The Brāhmaṇas contain myths, traditions, detailed description of ritual and information on the social and cultural history of ancient India. In the vast literature of the Brāhmaṇas the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa is the most valuable.

The second chapter deals with the meaning and significance of the Vedic sacrifices and a general survey is prepared on the sacrifices of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa.

In the Vedic age, ritual means performance of different rites of the sacrifice. The term ‘Yajña’ is derived from the ٧ yaj. Yajña is a means by which a link is established between human beings with divinities. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, it is mentioned that the rituals are compulsory works of man, since human beings are indebted to divinity right from their births and they have to repay the debts by performing the sacrificial rites. Sacrifice is the only means of attaining goals of human life. Sacrifice is the dispeller of all sins and bestower of sanctity to all. Even the magnanimity or sublimity of gods depends upon this sacrifice. The rituals are, as if, like a boat journey and the priests are its sailors. It is like a ship sailing to heaven ward. If the boat is sailed smoothly, it reaches to the destination safely; even so, if the sacrifice is performed in due order by the priests, it confers on the sacrificer his desired object. Again, if the sacrifice is not performed accordingly, the priests will incur sin for their mistakes in the sacrifice.

The sacrificial fee is considered as a part of the sacrifice. The sacrificial fee is regarded as an auspicious thing which causes the well-being of the sacrifice. Offering sacrificial fee is considered as a religious duty on the part of the sacrificer. Thus without the sacrificial fee the sacrifice is like a cart without the bullocks. It is clearly mentioned in the Brāhmaṇa texts, a sacrificer has to pay sacrificial fee as much as his ability since without sacrificial fee sacrifice remains incomplete. Though the sacrifice is the worship of God, yet all are not entitled to perform Vedic sacrifice. The person, who is married, who is learned in Vedic lores, or who has faith in Vedic sacrifice has right to perform Vedic sacrifice. In keeping with the old social system, the Śudras, who formed the bulk of the human population of ancient India, did not have right to Vedic studies or to perform Vedic sacrifice. But according to modern sociology, the Śudras face no obstacle to study Vedas or to perform Vedic sacrifice. Again, the person though belonging to traivarṇika class, may lose his hereditary Vedic right at his own sweet will if he has no faith in Vedas. Hence in the modern days, we presume, nobody has any misgiving regarding the right to sacrifice.

All works of human life, so trifling it may be, are the sacrifices. Thus, we eat daily is also a kind of Yajña or Sacrifice. In that sacrifice we offer oblation in the fire of the belly for the sake of lord Prajāpati or the deity of lives (Prāṇas). This deity stays in the stomach. Taking food is a kind of Agnihotra yāga, and therefore, named as ‘Prānāgnihotra’. The entire life of ours is a sacrifice, childhood, youth and old age are, as though, the three savanas of Somayāga and the death is the ‘Avabhṛtha’ iṣṭi of that yāga or taking ablution after the end of sacrifice. If the human being realizes the purport of these great tasks, his every work will be a sacrifice and his whole life will be a field of whole Satra. In this chapter a brief discussion is made on the sacrifices of Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa like Darśapurṇamāsa, Agniṣṭoma, Agyādheya, Punarādheya, Rājasūya, Vājapeya, Aśvamedha and so on.

In the third chapter special position and political significance of the Vedic sacrifices are discussed.

The sacrifice is considered as an indispensible means of gaining victory. It is a means of attaining the possessions and other ends, and of maintaining the right order in the universe. Initiation to the sacrificial rites is considered in the Brāhmaṇa text as a second birth of the sacrificer. Thus the performance of sacrifices makes a man twice-born (dvija). It is also recorded in the Brāhmaṇa text that sacrifice leads one to the world of heaven. Not only the mortal beings, but even the Gods also attained their divine glory and heavenly status by means of sacrifice. Even it is said that the creation of the world also lies in the sacrifice.

In ancient time, monarchy was the most common form of government. The term ‘Rājan’ has been repeatedly mentioned in the Ṛgveda. The king is the pivot of social and political organization. A state without a king faces lots of chaos and disorder. There is a frequent reference to the “law of fishes” in the Rāmāyana and also in the Manusmṛti. The “law of fishes” is a metaphorical way describing the condition of anarchy in a state. If there is no political leader in a state, the stronger and more powerful individuals and groups grab the weaker ones, just as the bigger fish swallows the smaller one.

Numerous sacrifices were performed for the attainment of different types of kingship and sovereignty. As some sacrifices have a purely political end in view, such as-Rājasūya, Vājapeya, Aśvamedha, Bṛahaspatisava, Sautrāmaṇī, Puruṣamedha and others. A ruler becomes Rājā by performing the Rājasūya sacrifice; whereas the performer of the Vājapeya becomes Samrāt, Svarāt by Aśvamedha and Virāt by Puruṣamedha. Some kings become great conquerors who celebrated their victories by performing sacrifices like Vājapeya and Aśvamedha which were the two principal ceremonies. The Aśvamedha sacrifice is to be performed by one who wants to be the king of kings and Vājapeya by one who wants to become an emperor or Samrāt. These sacrifices symbolize the degree of success achieve in realizing their ambitions.

In the early Vedic age, the kingship is regarded as a secular and popular institution. The king is regarded as the most important need in those days for the destruction of the enemies and protection of the people. But in the Brahmanical age, the institution of kingship associated with various rituals like–Rājasūya, Vājapeya, Aśvamedha and others. These rituals actually give a sacred character to the institution of kingship. Thus, the attainment of various types of royal power lays on the performance of numerous rituals or sacrifice.

The fourth chapter represents the Major sacrifices of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (Rājasūya, Vājapeya and Aśvamedha) and their relation to monarchy in ancient India.

The Rājasūya sacrifice is one of the principal ceremonies of royal inauguration. It consists of some animal sacrifices and also a number of various iṣṭis.

The Rājasūya or the royal inauguration ceremony is divided in to three distinct parts:—

1. a series of preliminary sacrifices.
2. the Abhiṣechaniya or sprinkling or anointing ceremony and
3. a number of post anointing ceremonies.

At first, a purificatory ceremony called the Pavitra takes place and the four seasonal offerings (Cāturmāsya) follow for the next one year. After finishing the Cāturmāsyas, some more iṣṭis and homas are performed among which the eleven offerings known as ‘Ratnināṃ haviṃsi’ take place. The king makers are known as ‘Ratnins’ i.e. the keeper of jewel. The king is regarded as the jewel and the king’s ministers or counsellors are termed as ‘Ratnins’. In this ceremony king goes to the house of each Ratnins or king makers and make an oblation in their houses in honour of a particular deity. The list of the king makers slightly differ according to the different Brāhmaṇa texts. According to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa there are eleven Ratnins or king makers. For the performance of Ratnināṃ-haviṃsi offerings the sacrificer required eleven days. On the twelfth day, the sacrificer goes to the house of the discarded wife known as Parivṛtti and offers an oblation to the goddess Nirṛti. But, in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa this offering is not included in the Ratnināṃ-haviṃsi offerings.

The second part of the Rājasūya sacrifice is known as Abhiṣeka or Mahābhiṣeka is regarded as the main part of the Rājasūya sacrifice as it mainly consists in sprinkling the king with holy waters collected from various sources.

Each type of water mixed together in vessel made of the wood of udumvara vessel. The sprinkling is done by the three upper classes i.e. by a Brāhmaṇa, a Kṣatriya and by a Vaiśya. The Brāhmaṇa sprinkles the king from the Palāsa bowl; a relative of the king sprinkles from Udumvara pot, a friend or Mitra of the king sprinkles from the Nyāgrodha vessel and the Vaiśya sprinkles from the Aśvattha pot. Each type of water actually represents some power and quality of the king. It is expected that the king should possess such qualities in him. The Rājasūya sacrifice or royal coronation has some popular rites associated with it, such as–the mimic cow raid, the game of dice and others. As a matter of fact, all these rites associated with the consecration ceremony simply signify the unrivalled greatness which every king should possess.

In the third part of the Rājasūya sacrifice, the performance of the Daśapeya comes first. It is so called as during this ceremony hundred persons including the king drink ten cups of soma juice with a group of ten people. After the tenth day of the Abhiṣeka ceremony the Daśapeya ceremony is accomplished. After one year, the keśavapāniya begins. Then the sacrificer performs the Sautrāmaṇī which is an expiation rite for any excess committed by the drink of soma-juice. After that the closing oblation known as Traidhātavi is performed, which marks the end of the Rājasūya sacrifice.

A complete soma yāga consists of seven forms of saṃsthās viz. Agniṣṭoma, Atyagniṣṭoma, Ukthya, Sodāsi, Atirātra, Aptoryam and Vājapeya. Thus the last form of samsthās is Vājapeya. Among the seven forms of samsthās, the Vājapeya is one of the sacrifice conveying high political significance. It is however, normally performed as an independent rite. According to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa the word ‘Vāja’ means food and ‘Peya’ means ‘drink’ which is derived from the root ٧ pa (to drink). The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa holds the view that the Vājapeya is same as annapeya (food and drink). He who offers the Vājapeya wins food. The Vājapeya is that ceremony by which the gods also obtain strength (vājaṃ) and by ‘drink of strength’ i.e. soma by drinking (pitvā) one becomes strong (vājin). One becomes king by performing the Rājasūya sacrifice and by performing the Vājapeya one becomes Samrāt. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa identifies the Vājapeya with the Bṛhaspatisava and makes the statement that the Vājapeya itself is the consecration of Bṛhaspati. The Vājapeya sacrifice is performed for the attainment of temporal power or lordship of a Kṣatriya and also for the spiritual power or lordship of a Brāhmaṇa. The numerous rites are performed in the Vājapeya sacrifice, such as: -the Aji dhāvana or the Chariot race, the rohā or mounting a post and the repetition of the number seventeen. As a matter of fact, this race like the cow raid and a dice play in other inauguration ceremonies represents a test for recognizing the ruler’s superiority in valour and physical prowess and a means of enabling him to prove himself the fittest man for kingship, as well as magical devices to achieve the defeat of his adversaries in prowess, sagacity and so on. Indeed this ceremony of chariot race was practiced in the remote antiquity and in the later times the Vedic Indians adopted this practice.

The Aśvamedha or the horse sacrifice is one of the most ancient and important religious ceremonies by which the king approved his claim to suzerainty over his neighbors. It is performed by that ruler whose strength, power and wealth uphold such an aspirant undertaking. By performing this sacrifice, the sacrificer extends his empire, increases his strength and power and achieved success in new enterprises. As a matter of fact the horse is a representative of royal power and domain (Kṣatriya). Anyone who wants to secure the ‘heroic power’ should perform this sacrifice. The Aśvamedha sacrifice is regarded as the king of all sacrifices and the bull of all sacrifices. It is a means of obtaining all desired objects and of attaining all attainments or success. The Aśvamedha is actually a soma sacrifice with political significance which aims at the attainment of paramount sovereignty. It is considered as a victory celebration rite. The ruler who is not satisfied with rājya or Sāmrājya but to attain unrivalled paramount sovereignty should perform the Aśvamedha sacrifice. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa calls it a Kṣatriya yajña. It is also mentioned that if any weak ruler performs this sacrifice he becomes defeated. Hence, the Aśvamedha sacrifice involved an assertion of power and political authority which a king of undisputed supremacy should possess.

Before the actual performance of the Aśvamedha sacrifice, the sacrificial horse which is black in the forehead, white in the back part, and which has a mark on its forehead is let loose to roam freely over the whole country for a year. A large number of royal attendants consisting of various types of fighters go with the horse for its protection. It is the duty of the attendants to protect the horse from all dangers and calamities and bring it back uninjured to the sacrificer. While roaming if any one seizes the horse, it means that the person stands in the way of sacrificer’s attaining paramount sovereignty. In such a situation, the attendants of the horse fight with the person. If they become fail to do so, the sacrificer cannot perform the Aśvamedha sacrifice. While the horse is roaming the sacrificer performed various homas relating to different limbs and various functions of the horse. Till the return of the horse, the sacrificer appoints some Brāhmiṇ and Kṣatriya lyricists who sing song on the pious and heroic deeds of the king.

After the return of the horse the main sacrifice takes place. In the Aśvamedha sacrifice queens play an important role. Not only the chief queen called (Mahisī) but all the queens of the monarch with their full retinue and implements have to take active part in this ceremony. Aśvamedha sacrifice ends with the concluding ablution ceremony known as Avabhṛtha rite. There is a peculiar ceremony including in this Avabhṛtha rite known as Jumbaka offering. The offering is made on the head of “the ‘white-spotted, bald-headed man with protruding teeth and reddish brown eyes” which is Varuṇa’s form. By this offering the sacrificer redeems himself from Varuṇa’s noose.

In the fifth chapter the minor sacrifices of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa like Puruṣamedha, Sarvamedha, Agnicayana, Cāturmāsya and Sautrāmaṇī are discussed with political significance.

The Puruṣamedha sacrifice is a slightly different form of soma sacrifice like Aśvamedha sacrifice. It is performed by a Brāhmaṇa or a Rājanya yajamāna, desirous of surpassing all the beings. It is neither Ekāha nor Satra type of sacrifice. The term ‘Puruṣamedha’ connotes the meaning as–in this sacrifice instead of animals human beings (puruṣa) are offered as oblations. Therefore, it is known as Puruṣamedha. But these offerings are regarded as only symbolical and not real. It is also evident from the Śuṇaḥśepa story of the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, where we noticed that Śuṇaḥśepa was to be sacrificed to Varuṇa, but was released due to the favour of various deities.

A king by performing the Puruṣamedha sacrifice, surpass all being and become everything as he bestows all his property (other than the land and property of the Brāhmaṇa) as dakṣinā in order to obtain and securing everything.

On the other hand, by performing the Puruṣamedha sacrifice, a king enters in to a life of mendicant. The sacrificer gives up his all wealth to the priests and retires to the forest with the intension to spread the spirit of self resignation in man. Moreover, by giving up his all ‘property’ or ‘wealth’ a general welfare is also expected by the king for his subjects.

The Sarvamedha sacrifice or All sacrifice is one of the Ahina types of Soma sacrifice, executed by one who wants to fulfil his all desires or all types of achievements. This sacrifice is also performed for the sake of gaining and winning every kind of food. The Brāhmaṇa Svayaṃbhu performed this sacrifice for the first time. He offers his own self in the creatures, and the creatures his own self in to him (Brāhmaṇa Svayaṃbhu). And thus, by offering up his own self in the creatures, and the creatures in his own self; he compassed the supremacy, sovereignty and attains the lordship over all creatures. Hence, the sacrificer by offering all sacrificial essences in the Sarvamedha sacrifice, surpass all being and attains supremacy, sovereignty and lordship

This sacrifice is regarded as the supreme of all sacrifices, as by performing this sacrifice the sacrificer attain supremacy. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa it is mentioned that the Viśvakarman Bhauvana once performed this sacrifice, and having performed this sacrifice he overpass all beings and became everything. This ceremony proves the existence of the territorial ideal of a one state.

In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, the Agnicayana (fire-building ceremony) is dealt with in the kāṇḍas from VI to X. The Agnicayana means the building of the fire-altar which is an optional ancillary rite of a soma sacrifice. This ceremony contains a large number of activities and also deals with the philosophical speculations of life. The fire altar is often marked out as Prajāpati. It is also mentioned that one who builds the fire altar, reconstructs Prajāpati. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa has also identified the fire-altar with the year. There are five layers in the fire altar; these are five seasons of the year. Hence, the fire-altar is identified with the year. Thus the Agnicayana (firebuilding) ceremony gives us enough scope for Philosophical speculations of life. The Brāhmaṇa texts develop their views in connection with the Agnicayana ceremony. Along with the Philosophical character, the Agnicayana ceremony deals with some oblation conveying political significance. In the Agnicayana ceremony the sacrificer after completing the five layers of the Vedi mounts upon the altar and makes several libations. Among them some libations convey monarchial strata–such as, the Vājaprasaviya-oblation, Pārtha oblations, Rāṣṭbṛddhoma and so on.

The Cāturmāsya sacrifice is a combination of four seasonal sacrifices. Each of the four seasonal sacrifices takes place after four month, so it is known as Cāturmāsya sacrifice.

The names of the four parvans are–

1. Vaiśvadeva.
2. Varuṇapraghāsa.
3. Sākamedha and
4. Sunāsīrīya.

Each of the parvan is performed at the interval of four months. The Cāturmāsya sacrifice is called bhaiṣajya yajña. It is performed in the joining of seasons (ṛtusandhi). For in the joining of the seasons disease is born. Thus, the Cāturmāsya yajña which is performed in the joining of the seasons should therefore said to be connected with healing. By performing the Cāturmāsyas throughout the year, one wins the year.

This winning of the year has another shade i.e. that of fertility. In connection with the Cāturmāsyas in the Rājasūya, it is said that one who is desirous of food and nourishment should sacrifice with the Cāturmāsyas. In the Rājasūya sacrifice, the Cāturmāsyas begins on the first phālguna with the Sunāsiriya rite. Then in Chaitra, begins the abhiṣecaniya and in the Jaiṣṭha (next year) follows the ceremony of cutting the hair (Keśavapānīya). The sacrificer of the Rājasūya performs the Vaiśvadeva, Varuṇapraghāsa like that of Prajāpati. As by means of this offering, the Prajāpati create abundance of food and makes the creatures free from Varuṇa’s noose. Thus, the sacrificer by making this offering obtains the same result like that of Prajāpati. The performer of the Rājasūya also performs the Sākamedha offering, as the Gods slew Vṛtra and attains the universal conquest by means of this offering. Thus, by making Sākamedha offering the Rājasūya sacrificer also gains victory and removed his all venomous enemies. Hence, the inclusion of the Cāturmāsyas in the Rājasūya sacrifice highlights its Saumika character.

The Sautrāmaṇī is an expiatory rite performed for any excess committed by the drink of Soma. It is not a Soma sacrifice but optionally come under the seven haviryajñas. The performer of Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice gets offspring, cattle and the heavenly abode. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa we get reference that after performing a soma sacrifice, one should perform the Sautrāmaṇī. For one who performs the soma sacrifice becomes empty as it were, his prosperity has been taken away then. The sacrificer then performed the Sautrāmaṇī and becomes filled with offspring and cattle and establishes himself firmly in the heavenly world.

The Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice is divided in to two parts:

1. The Caraka Sautrāmaṇī.
2. The Kaukili Sautrāmaṇī.

The Caraka Sautrāmaṇī is performed at the end of the Rājasūya sacrifice and also after the Agnicayana ceremony. It is also performed for one who has vomitted soma (somavāmin) or for one who is excessively purged by soma (somātipūta). The Kaukili Sautrāmaṇī is an independent rite. It is performed for the fulfilment of certain desire.

The Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice as an expiatory rite is performed at the end of the Rājasūya sacrifice. The Caraka Sautrāmaṇī is performed after the Rājasūya as a curing and a redressing rite. A king who is deprived of his kingdom should perform this rite. As we get reference from the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, that Duṣṭaritu Pauṃsāyana had been expelled from his kingdom, which had come down to him through ten generations by the Sriñjayas. The priest (Cākra Sthapati) performing the Sautrāmaṇī for the Duṣṭaritu Pauṃsāyana and returned back to the dominion captured by the Sriñjayas.

Thus, as a part of the Rājasūya sacrifice, the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice also possesses some political character in it.

The sixth chapter deals with the dichotomic interpretation of the Major and Minor sacrifices of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa.

In the Rājasūya ceremony, the consecrated king makes offerings to the houses of the eleven Ratnins known as ‘Ratnināṃ haviṃsi’ ceremony. The king goes to the houses of each Ratnins and makes offering except the Kṣatra and Akṣāvāpa and Govikartana together. For them offerings are made at the royal palace.

The offerings made by the consecrated king to the houses of Ratnins are very significant. These Ratnins actually represent different classes of people in the society. The consecrated king makes offering to the houses of Ratnins with the intension to seek their support, which speaks and supports for mass contact and connection.

Besides this, in the list of the Ratnins we find the four social classes of people, such as, the Brāhmaṇa (the Purohita), the Kṣatriya (the king himself), the Vaiśyas (Grāmanȋ) and the Śudras (the Akṣāvāpa and the Govikartana). The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa mentions that the participation of the Śudras in these offerings are sanctified by a purificatory rite known as ‘Soma-Rudra iṣṭi’ In the same Brāhmaṇa it is recorded that once upon a time Svarbhānu, the Asura struck the sun with darkness and striken with darkness he did not shine. Soma and Rudra removed that darkness of him (Sun) and released him from the evil. And in like manner the king when he put those unworthy of sacrifice either in contact with the Śudras or whomever else performed the Soma rudra iṣṭi. The Soma and Rudra removed that darkness of him and he becomes consecrated.

The purificatory rite in the consecration ceremony mainly consists in sprinkling the king with holy waters collected from various seventeen sources. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa gives the reason as to why the seventeen kind of water is mixed together is that the Prajāpati is seventeen fold and Prajāpati is the sacrifice. This is why he (Adhvaryu) brings together seventeen kinds of water and elevated this sprinkling ceremony as high as Prajāpati.

Moreover, this sprinkling or anointing ceremony is not only considered as sacred bath but it is regarded as the bestower of kingship. As a matter of fact this consecration ceremony symbolizes some holy power or character of the king such as-the flowing river symbolizes vigour, flood for plenty, sea for dominion and so on. Hence, the priest sprinkles the sacrificer with the intention that he should possess such quality in him. It is expected that the king should be vigorous like flowing river, loyal to the people, should be sincere and harmless like the waters of a stagnant pool and so on. Hence, by performing this ritual, the priest connects the sacrificer with constitutional power.

According to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, he who offers the Vājapeya wins food, since ‘Vājapeya’ is the same as ‘anna-peya’ (food and drink). In fact the numerous lines of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa clearly suggest that the Vājapeya ceremony is a simple magical performance to obtain food and drink. But the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa mentioned that Vājapeya is the ceremony through which the Gods wish to obtain strength (Vājaṃ) and by drinking the ‘drink of strength’ one becomes strong (Vājin). The Vājapeya is performed by both the Brāhmiṇs and by the Kṣatriyas. It stands for the temporal power or lordship of the Kṣatriyas and the spiritual lordship of the Brāhmaṇas.

In the Vājapeya ceremony we have come across the most popular rites known as Aji dhāvana or Chariot race. The interesting feature of this race is that by performing this rite, the sacrificer is made victorious. In this race a post is fixed at the farthest limit with the measurement of seventeen arrows. Among the other competitors, the sacrificer has to reach first to the post. As a matter of fact, this race has some linkage with the ancient system of distribution is evident from the Vājapeya legend of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa According to Oldenberg, the purpose of the chariot race is to win the sacrificer by magic the swiftness of the victorious steeds as strength.

Besides this, the chariot race may be considered as a means of wealth. As in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa it is recorded that the Adhvaryu takes down the chariot and utters the mantras saying–“Thou art Indra’s thunderbolt, a winner of wealth, for chariot is indeed a winner of wealth;-may this one win wealth by thee! Wealth means food, may this one gain food by thee”. In this sacrifice, the number seventeen (17) is marked at various levels such as-17 days, 17 lauds, 17 cups of Soma, 17 pieces of cloth to envelope the sacrificial pole, use of 17 chariots and so on. In the Chariot race we have also noticed that at the time of the race 17 drums are beaten to make auspicious sound. As Prajāpati is seventeen fold and by beating those drums the sacrificer wins Prajāpati. The sound of the drum is regarded as the highest kind of sounds and the sacrificer wins the highest of speech by beating those drums. So, it can be said that the Chariot race of the Vājapeya sacrifice has both political as well as ritualistic significance.

In the Aśvamedha sacrifice the sacrificial horse is let loose for one year. After the return of the horse all the wives of the king performed numerous rites. When the sacrificial horse (victim) is slain, all the wives of the king have to go round it and make ceremonial mournings. After that the chief queen Mahisī lies besides the dead horse and unite with it and says-“May the vigour male, the layer of seed, lay seed’! She says for the sake of completeness of union. This union with the horse is believed as a means of fertilization. At the time of union with the horse, there is an obscene dialogue between the priests and the wife of the sacrificer. The indecent languages used in this rite are useful for fertilization and thus add to the fertility power of the Aśvamedha.

Besides this, we also notice that in this ritual all the queen of the king take active parts with their attendants. The Mahisī (chief queen) has a “hundred daughters of kings” attending upon her, the Vāvatā (favourite queen) has “a hundred rājanya” (noble women) attending upon her. The Parivṛktā (discarded wife) is attended by daughters of heralds (Sūta) and head man of villages (Grāmanī) comprising hundred in all. Pālāgalī, the fourth wife, the lowest queen in social rank is attended by a hundred daughters of Chamberlains and Charioteers. This classification clearly indicates that all the classes of subjects are equal participants in it and from this description we can also learn the constitutional status and dignity of the queens in the Vedic age.

Of the five sacrificial animals next to the man, horse is regarded as the highest of all animals and by means of this the sacrificer is caused to reach the highest position. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa quotes that the horse is a worth of thousand Cows. It is believed that the sacrificial horse is originated from the Prajāpati’s eye. In the Aśvamedha sacrifice, when the sacrificial horse is set free, it wonders in to the north-eastern direction, the quarter of ‘invincibility’ (i.e. victory) where is the door of heaven and where victory is gained. Moreover, the horse is regarded as representative of royal power and dominion and it has its connection with Varuṇa. Hence, by roaming about freely it is on the one hand spreads its divine power over the whole country and on the other hand it extends the rule and power of its king.

The Puruṣamedha sacrifice is attached with numerous rites and rituals. We notice that in the Puruṣamedha sacrifice the victim Puruṣa is not really killed, it is symbolical in real performance. From this, we also get the idea that in the age of the Brāhmaṇas a changed mentality was working among the people. The sacrificial fee as prescribed for the Puruṣamedha sacrifice is very novel. A king may on this occasion give up his all goods and enter in to the life of the wandering mendicant. The main object of this sacrifice is to stir up the spirit of renunciation in man by proving the ephemeral nature of the world show. The philosophical idea in the Puruṣamedha sacrifice like avoiding of human slaughtering, self resignation or entering in to the life of wandering mendicant are the tree steps of an ideal kingship. Besides this, the ‘giving up of all property’ by the king for the welfare of his subjects highlights the idealistic monarchial strata of the then society.

The Sarvamedha or All sacrifice is performed with a view to gain every kind of food. As we know that the Sarvamedha sacrifice consists of ten days and it is performed for the sake of gaining and winning every kind of food. Because Virāj consists of ten syllables and the Virāj is all. Hence, the Sarvamedha sacrifice has some dichotomic interpretation as by performing this sacrifice one attains all kinds of food and that of universal sovereignty.

The Agnicayana ceremony is attached with various ritualistic activities, which gives us enough scope for philosophical speculations of life. Besides these, there are some oblations in the Agnicayana ceremony conveying political significance,, such as-the Pārtha oblations of the Rājasūya sacrifice, Abhiṣeka of the Yajamāna, Six Vājaprasaviya offerings, twelve Rāṣṭrabhṛt offerings and so on. In the ritual procedure of the Agnicayana ceremony there are a certain rites in which the sacrificer is given a sacred bath. This sacred bath or Abhiṣeka in the Agnicayana ceremony has some similarities with the royal consecration. After having piled up the fire, the sacrificer should consecrate with sacred bath. As who has piled the fire altar and the sacrificer of the Rājasūya conquers both the worlds. After that the sacrificer also performs the Rāṣṭrabhṛt (realm-sustaining) oblations. Hence, from the above discussion, it can be said that along with various ritualistic performances, the Agnicayana ceremony also have some philosophical as well as political character in it.

The Cāturmāsyas are generally considered as fertility rite, but has some healing or curing capacity also. Besides this, the Cāturmāsya sacrifice also has some royal character in it. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa it is mentioned that the sacrificer of the Rājasūya “offers the Vaiśvadeva; for by means of the Vaiśvadeva Prajāpati created abundance of food and creatures………..and in like manner the sacrificer by the Vaiśvadeva create abundance and creatures”, then he “offers the Varuṇapraghāsa, for by means of the Varuṇapraghāsa Prajāpati delivered the creatures from Varuṇa’s noose……..and in like manner does this sacrificer by the Varuṇapraghāsa deliver the creates from Varuṇa’s noose” after that the sacrificer “performs the Sākamedha; for by the Sākamedha the Gods slew Vṛtra and gained the universal conquest……….and in like manner the sacrificer slays his wicked, hateful enemy and obtains victory”. Hence, the inclusion of the Cāturmāsya in the Rājasūya is pointer to its political character.

The Sautrāmaṇī is an expiatory sacrifice, performed by one who is excessively purged by Soma. As a redressing rite the Caraka Sautrāmaṇī is performed at the end of the Rājasūya sacrifice. The Rājasūya sacrifice is regarded as one of the major sacrifices in ancient India with political import. One who performs the Rājasūya should subsequently perform the Sautrāmaṇī as a redressing rite. As by performing the Rājasūya sacrifice, one becomes deprived of certain things viz. sensual powers (indriya), vitality (vira), speech (vāk), Milk (pāyas) and so on. In order to regains the strength and vigour which have gone away from the sacrificer, the performer of the Rājasūya sacrifice should perform the Caraka Sautrāmaṇī to reinstates these valour and strength in him. Hence, the Kṣatriya sacrificer gets beck his valour and strength by performing the Caraka Sautrāmaṇī. Moreover, in the Āpastambha Śrauta Sūtra it is mentioned that a king who is devoid of his kingdom should perform the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice and thereby gets back his kingdom. And so being a follow up of the Rājasūya sacrifice, the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice also has political significance in it.

In the last chapter of this research work we have major findings and concluding observations.

The Vedic literature is a vast and deep ocean of knowledge with multi dimensional disciplines. Next to the Saṃhitās, the Brāhmaṇa literature is of great significance. All the matters relating to the sacrificial performances are discussed in the Brāhmaṇa literature. Besides sacrificial details, from the Brāhmaṇa literature we also get information about the ancient Indian social, cultural, economic background and so on.

In the course of our study period we have observed that the ‘Yajña’ or sacrifice is regarded as the best task or sreṣṭhatamaṃ karma. As by performing sacrifice one can redeem his sin and became holy and blessed. One can redeem himself from such kind of debt by performing Bhūta-yajña, Manuṣya-yajña, Pitṛ-yajña, Deva-yajña and Brahma-yajña respectively. Sacrifice also insures the operation of all powers for good. Sacrifices are generally performed for the attainment or fulfilment of various desirous or wish. By performing sacrifice the sacrificer wants to obtain generally the blessings of the God. Apart from the general sacrifices, there are others which were performed for fulfilment of many wishes veiled under religious traits. In the second category there are a number of sacrifices which are directly connected with kingship or royal upliftment. They are Rājasūya, Vājapeya and Aśvamedha. By performing those sacrifices the sacrificer connects himself with kingship and paramount sovereignty. The great king Pṛthu was installed to his kingdom by the performance of Rājasūya Yajña.

In the Rājasūya ceremony offerings are made by the consecrated king at the houses of the ‘Ratnins’. The Ratnins or the king makers actually consisted of different classes of people in the society. The consecrated king makes offerings to each of the Ratnin’s house with the intention to seek their support. This bears some political significance. This approach and appeal serves dual purpose-contact with all stratas of society is made and the religious goal is also achieved.

As a popular festival, the cow raid or the chariot race was performed in the Rājasūya or in the Vājapeya sacrifice. The special feature of this rite is that by this rite the sacrificer becomes victorious and secures power. As this rite is used to test the physical fitness of the ruler and enable him the fittest man for kingship.

In the Rājasūya sacrifice, Tiger’s skin is used in numerous rituals. After the oath taking ceremony the king steps upon the tiger skin. In the Rājasūya sacrifice the throne (which is made of khādirā wood) is installed on the Tiger’s skin for the king. Among all the beasts the Tiger is regarded as the supreme animal or the king. Hence, the use of Tiger’s skin in the Rājasūya ceremony is an indication of the fact that by using the Tiger’s skin the Adhvaryu wants to make the king supreme or highest among all human beings like that of the Tiger.

As a minor sacrifice the Puruṣamedha, the Sarvamedha, the Agnicayana, the Cāturmāsya and the Sautrāmaṇī ceremony are also possess some significant character in it. It is found that the executor of the Puruṣamedha sacrifice attains and secures everything. This sacrifice is also performed for the attainment of overpowering strength. A Kṣatriya Yajamāna by performing this sacrifice surpasses all being and attains everything. Moreover, by performing the Puruṣamedha sacrifice a general welfare is wished by the Kṣatriya Yajamāna for his people as he gives up his all property as dakṣinā to the priests and retires to the forest. This provides us idea about the royal character of the Puruṣamedha sacrifice.

Besides this, the Puruṣamedha sacrifice also provides some philosophical idea. In the Puruṣamedha sacrifice human slaughtering was avoided, after the Paryagnikaraṇa performance human victims are set free and offerings are made in symbolical way. The idea of self renunciation in man, avoiding human slaughtering or entering in the life of mendicant is the indicator of the philosophical thinking of the Puruṣamedha sacrifice.

The Sarvamedha sacrifice is that sacrifice which is performed both for the attainment of ‘every kind of food’ and for ‘universal sovereignty’. As in the Sarvamedha sacrifice the sacrificer offers all the sacrificial essences in the fire (like every kind of food both the dry and the fresh), and attains every kind of food and Supremacy too. In Ancient times numerous king performed this sacrifice and secures lordship, sovereignty and every kind of food. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa we have found that the king Viśvakarman Bhauvana performed this sacrifice and attains everything and becomes everything. Hence the above discussion gives us idea that the Sarvamedha sacrifice has some dichotomic character in it.

The Agnicayana or the fire building ceremony generally comes under the Soma sacrifice. In the ritual procedure of the Agnicayana ceremony we have find some philosophical or cosmological thinking are corroborated in it. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa has identified the fire altar of the Agnicayana ceremony with the Prajāpati, the lord of creation. Moreover, the construction of the bricks and the process of pilling them up are also equalized with Prajāpati’s cosmic creation. Thus the Agnicayana ceremony provides us the cosmological or philosophical idea of life. Besides this in the Agnicayana ceremony we have found some oblations conveying royal character. The Pārtha oblations of the Rājasūya, the Vājaprasavīya oblations, Rāṣṭrabhṛt (realm-sustaining) oblations and the sacred bath or Abhiṣeka in the Agnicayana ceremony possessing some monarchial or dichotomic features of the Agnicayana sacrifice.

The Cāturmāsyas are seasonal sacrifice and generally considered as fertility rite. The Cāturmāsyas also have some royal character in it. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa it is mentioned that the sacrificer of the Rājasūya offers Vaiśvadeva, Varuṇapraghāsa and Sākamedha offering and wins the abundance of food, makes the creatures free from Varuṇa’s noose and killed his hateful enemy like the Gods. Hence, the insertion of the Cāturmāsya in the Rājasūya shows the royal or political importance of the Cāturmāsya sacrifice.

The Sautrāmaṇī is an expiatory rite performed by one who is excessively purged by the drinking of Soma. The Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice formed a prominent role in the Rājasūya sacrifice. By performing the Rājasūya sacrifice the sacrificer becomes deprived from certain sensual powers like vitality, speech and so on. In order to regain such power, the sacrificer of the Rājasūya perform the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice and gets backs his lost power. Moreover, a king (who is deprived of his kingdom) can also get back his kingdom by performing the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice. As in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa it is stated that the sage Cākra Sthāpati executed the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice for the king Duṣṭaṛtu Pauṃsāyana and returned back his lost dominion to him which was captured by the Sriñjayas. Hence, being a most significant part of the Rājasūya sacrifice, the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice also possessing monarchial attachment in it.

Yajña or sacrifice has the proven ability to rejuvenate the environment. When the sacrifice is performed numerous mantras are recited and various āhutidravyas are offered in the fire, which creates positive effects in the mind of the people and in the atmosphere. The sacrifices which have been discussed in this dissertation also equip the general effects of the other sacrifices. It removes all the negative effects of pollution of the environment besides their added implications. Furthermore, by performing sacrifices one can obtain his desired object and dignified status.

The thesis entitled ‘A Dichotomic interpretation of the sacrifices of Rājasūya, Vājapeya and Aśvamedha: Their Ritualistic and Monarchial Strata with reference to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa’ resumes to its concluding observation that the political genesis of ancient India was impregnated in these sacrifices. A derivative interpretation of the details of the rituals of these sacrifices had a dichotomic approach which contributed a lot in bringing up in to shape or come in to existence of monarchy in ancient India.

(Aparna Dhar)