2: Definition of Yamaka Alaṃkāra

In the beginning of his fourth chapter Vāmana clearly states that he is going to furnish the definitions and characteristics of two śabdālaṃkāras—yamaka and anuprāsa^[1] . Bharata, in his Nāṭyaśāstra, has only mentioned yamaka as a figure of speech of word.

He regards yamaka as repetition of words at the beginning of the feet and the other places in a poetic composition—

śabdābhyāsastu yamakaṃ padādiṣu vikalpitam/
  —Nāṭyaśāstra (of Bharata) 17.98.

Abhinavagupta, in his commentary Abhinavabhāratī, points out the significance of the term yamaka bestowed upon this particular figure of speech—

yamau dvau samajātāvucyete tatprakṛtitvādyamakam/ tenaikasyākṣarasya padasya vādvitīyaṃ sadṛśaṃ nirantaraṃ sāntaraṃ vā śobhājanakamalaṃkāraḥ /
  —Abhinavabhāratī, Nāṭyaśāstra (of Bharata) 17.98.

He also cites the fact that the word ‘ādi’ which is used in the definition of yamaka represents the middle and end of the feet also.

According to Bharata, yamaka can be classified into ten (10) types—

1. pādānta yamaka,
2. kāñci yamaka,
3. samudga yamaka,
4. vikrānta yamaka,
5. cakravāla yamaka,
6. sandaṣṭa yamaka,
7. pādādi yamaka,
8. āmreḍita yamaka,
9. caturvyavasita yamaka and
10. mālāyamaka^[2] .

These yamakas are formed in the following way—

1. Pādānta yamaka—when similar syllables occur at the end of all four feet.
2. Kāñci yamaka—two similar words occurring at the beginning and at the end of each foot.
3. Samudga yamaka—the same half feet repeats itself to complete the verse.
4. Vikrānta yamaka—when the two alternate feet are similar.
5. Cakravāla yamaka—when the word at the end of a foot is similar to the word at the beginning of the next foot.
6. Sandaṣṭa yamaka—when the two words at the beginning of each foot are similar.
7. Pādādi yamaka—when the same word occurs at the beginning of each foot.
8. Āmreḍita yamaka—when the last words of each foot are reduplicated.
9. Caturvyavasita yamaka—when all the feet consist of similar syllables.
10. Mālāyamaka—when one consonant with different vowels occurs in various words in a verse.

Bhāmaha has mentioned anuprāsa and yamaka as śabdālaṃkāras. He defines yamaka as the repetition of letters which are different in meaning but sound similar in pronunciation—

tulyaḥ śrutīnāṃ bhinnānāmabhidheyaiḥ parasparaṃ/
varṇānāṃ yaḥ punarvādo yamakaṃ tannigadyate//
  —Kāvyālaṃkāra (of Bhāmaha) 2.17.

He further elaborates some special characteristics of this figure of speech—

pratītaśabdamojasvi suśliṣṭapadasandhi ca/
prasādi svabhidhānañca yamakaṃ kṛtīnāṃ matam//
  —Kāvyālaṃkāra (of Bhāmaha) 2.18.

—The yamaka is accepted by the learned when in it the words have wellknown significances, are powerful, are close-knit, are of knitted conjunction, are clear and are melodious. He hints that anuprāsa can be considered as a variety of yamakas which were mentioned by Bharata.

He mentions five varieties of yamaka—

1. ādi yamaka,
2. madhyānta yamaka,
3. pādābhyāsa yamaka,
4. āvali yamaka and
5. samastapāda yamaka.

i) Ādi yamaka—when the repetition of words occurs at the beginning of the verse.

ii) Madhyānta yamaka—when the repetition of the words occurs at the middle and at the end of the verse.

iii) Pādābhyāsa yamaka—repetition of the whole foot or ‘pada’.

iv) Āvali yamaka—a string of repetitions.

v) Samastapāda yamaka—repetition of all feet or ‘padas’.

Bhāmaha also considers that reduplication at the middle only and at the end only is quite impossible. The sandaṣṭa yamaka and the samudga yamaka mentioned by Bharata have been included in the ādi yamaka or the madhyānta yamaka variety. Bhāmaha also i ncludes popular poetic composition ‘prahelikā’ in yamaka and states that ‘Acyutottara’ of Rāmaśarmāis a work where these kinds of poetic compositions are exemplified.

Daṇḍin defines yamaka as recurrence of groups of letters either mediately or immediately in a verse.

This recurrence can be seen in the initial middle or final part of a verse—

avyapetavyayetātmāvyavṛttirvarṇasaṃhateḥ/
yamakaṃ tacca pādānāmādimadhyāntagocaram//
  —Kāvyādarśa (of Daṇḍin) 3.1.

—Varieties of yamaka are determined by its presence in one foot, two feet, three feet or four feet in a verse. The recurrence of letters can also be seen in the initial, middle, final, mid-final, mid-initial, initial-final or throughout the verse. Daṇḍin admits that there c an be numerous varieties of yamaka and some of them are easy and some of them are difficult.

He also asserts that he has tried to illustrate only a few of them—

atyantabahavasteṣām bhedāḥ sambhedayonayaḥ/
sukarāduṣkarāścaiva darsyante te'nu kecana//
  —Kāvyādarśa (of Daṇḍin) 3.3.

Vāmana defines yamaka as the repetition of the same word in its different significations. Again, when the same letter is repeated in well-defined places it is also called yamaka—

padamanekārthamakṣaraṃ vāvṛttaṃ sthānaniyame yamakam/
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.1.

—In his vṛtti Vāmana reasserts the importance of ‘sthānaniyama’ or restriction of places in the treatment of yamaka—

svavṛttyāsajātīyena vākārtsnyaikadeśābhyāmanekapādavyāptiḥ sthānaniyama iti/ yāni tvek apādabhāgavṛttīti yamakāni dṛśyante teṣu ślokāntarasthasaṃsthānayamakāpekṣayaiva sthānaniyama iti/
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.1.

—In yamaka, the repetition of similar words either in part or in entirety is seen in more than one foot of the verse or in the same part of the feet. In cases of the repetitions in the same foot, the ‘sthānaniyama’ is to be taken as reference to other verses.

The ‘Kāmadhenu’ commentator points out that the word ‘sthānaniyama’ is inserted in the definition of yamaka to discard the definition of Bhāmaha propounded earlier—

bhāmahenoktaṃ pratyākhyātumāha-sthānaniyame satīti/
  —Kāmadhenu, Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.1.

The commentator puts forth an etymological discourse of the word yamaka and also shows the primary two-fold classification of yamaka into padayamaka and akṣarayamaka—

yamanamatra guṇanamāvṛttiriti yāvat / yamyate guṇyate, āvartyate padamakṣaraṃ veti yamaḥ / bahulagrahaṇāt karmaṇi ghapratyayaḥ / yama eva yamakam/ ayamatra vākyārthaḥ / bhinnārthamekamanekaṃ vāpadaṃ tadvadekamanekaṃ vākṣaraṃ ca sthānaniyame styāvṛttaṃ yamakaṃ bhavatīti / tathāca padayamakamakṣarayamakamiti ca dvaividhyaṃ darśitaṃ bhavati /
  —Kāmadhenu, Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.1.

The places where the restrictions are to be implied in the case of yamaka are—the entire foot, the beginning of the foot, the middle of the foot, the end of the foot, the beginning of more than one foot, the middle of more than one foot and the end of more than one foot—

pādaḥ pādasyaikasyānekasya cādimadyāntabhāgāḥ sthānāni/
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.2.

Vāmana then proceeds to the illustrations of yamaka. He first illustrates the ‘pādayamaka’ or the repetition of the entire foot—

asajjanavaco yasya kalikāmadhugarhitam/
tasya na syādviṣataroḥ kalikāmadhu garhitam//

—The person who pays respect to the ill-feeling words of the wicked, the honey from the blossoms of the poisonous tree would not be something for him to be disregarded.

Here the entire foot ‘kalikāmadhugarhitam’ is repeated though with two different meanings. In the first line of the verse, the foot means:

“kaleḥ kāmaṃ dogdhīti kalikāmadhuk / tathāvidhaṃ asajjanasya khalasya vaco yasyārhitaṃ pūjitaṃ bhavati/”
  —(Kāmadhenu).

The implication of the foot in the second line of the verse is:

“kalikāmadhu korakamakarandaḥ garhitaṃ na syāt /”
  —(Kāmadhenu).

The repetition at the beginning of the foot is illustrated as follows—

hanta hantararātīnāṃ dhīra dhīrarcitātava/
kāmaṃ kāmandakīnītirasyārasyādivāniśam//

—O wise destroyer of enemies! Your respected intellect tastes the science of polity propounded by Kāmandaka day and night.

Here the repetition is done in the beginning of every foot of the verse (hantahanta, dhīra-dhīra, kāmam-kāmandakī and rasyā-rasyā).

The example of yamaka in the middle of the foot is furnished as follows—

vasuparāsu parāsumivojjhatīṣvvikalaṃ vikalaṅkarāśiprabham/
priyatamaṃ yatamantumanīśvaraṃ rasikatāsikatāsviva tāsu kā//

—The women who are addicted to wealth alone are devoid of affection and are dry as sand. They abandon their wealthless lover as if he were dead even though he be as beautiful as the stainless moon, flawless and pleasing.

Here the repetition is done in the middle of every foot (parāsu-parāsu, vikalam-vikalaṅka, yatamam-yatamantu and sikatā-sikatā).

The illustration of yamaka at the end of the foot is cited as follows—

sudṛśo rasarecakitaṃ cakitaṃ bhavatīkṣitamasti mitaṃ stimitaṃ/
api hāsalavastavakastava kastulayennanu kāmadhurāṃ madhurām//

—The affectionate, sometimes mobile and at times fixed, beautiful glances of her eyes and her smile which surpasses even the blossom of flowers—no one can equal the charming girl full of love.

Here the repetition is done in the end of every foot (cakitam-cakitam, stimitam-stimitam, stavaka-stavaka and madhurām-madhurām).

The example of repetition at the beginning of consecutive feet is put forth as follows—

bhramara drutapuṣpāṇibhrama ratyai piban madhu/
kākundakusume prītiḥ kākundatvāvirauṣi yat//

—O black bee! If you desire happiness, wander among the flowers of trees sucking their honey; why are you so affectionate to the ‘kunda’ flower that you are weeping in pitiable accents?

Here the repetition is done in the beginning of consecutive feet (bhramara-bhramara and kākunda-kākunda).

The example of yamaka in the middle of consecutive feet is shown as—

apyaśakya tayādattaṃ duḥkhaṃ śakyantarātmani/
vāṣpo bāhīkanārīṇāṃ vegavāhīkapolayoḥ//

—He has inflicted unbearable pain in the inner soul of the women of ‘Śakya’ country and has also been the reason for the copious flow of tears along the cheeks of ‘Vahīka’ women.

In this verse the repetition is done in the middle of the consecutive feet (śakyam-śakyam and hīka-hīka).

The example of yamaka at the end of consecutive feet is cited as—

sapadi kṛtapadastvadīkṣitena smitaśucināsmaratattvadīkṣitena/
bhavati vata janaḥ sacittadāho na khalu mṛṣākṛta eva cittadāho//

—It is not a lie that (o lady!) you can enkindle the heart of a man by your erotic glance and by the purity of your smile.

Here the yamaka is done in the end of consecutive feet (tvadīkṣitenatvadīkṣitena and cittadāho-cittadāho).

The example of ekāntarapādānta yamaka (repetition at the end of alternate feet) is shown as—

udvejayati bhūtāni tasya rājñaḥ kuśāsanam/
siṃhāsanaviyuktasya tasya kṣipraṃ kuśāsanam//

—The king whose ill-reign causes trouble to his subjects is very soon to be deprived of his throne and is to sit on ‘kuśa’ grasses.

Here the yamaka is seen in the end of alternate feet, i.e. second and fourth feet (kuśāsanam and ku-śāsanam).

Vāmana further states that the repetition in the middle and at the beginning of alternate feet may be similarly shown—

evamekāntarapādādimadyayamakānyuhyāni/

The Kāmadhenu commentator has cited examples of these types of yamakas as—ekāntaritapādādi yamaka (the repetition at the beginning of alternate feet)—

karo'titāmro rāmāṇāṃ tantrītāḍanavibhramam/
karoti seṣya kānte ca śravaṇotpalatāḍanam//

—The rigorous use of bow -string has made the palms of Rāma very reddish and she increases the passion of her beloved by touching his ears with lotus.

In the verse the yamaka is seen at the beginning of the alternate feet, i.e. first and third feet (karoti and karoti).

The example of yamaka in the middle of alternate feet has been shown by the commentator as—

yānti yasyāntike sarve'pyanyakāntamupādhayaḥ/
taṃ śāntacittavṛttāntaṃ gaurīkāntamupāsmahe//

—We worship the calm-hearted and beloved of Goddess Gourīto whom all the beings go when they are free of mortal attachments.

Here the yamaka is seen in the middle of alternate feet, i.e. in the second and fourth feet (kānta and kānta).

The example of yamaka at the end of all the four feet is cited as follows—

natonnatabhrūgatibaddhalāsyāṃ vilokya tanvīṃ śaśipeśalāsyām/
manaḥ kimuttāmyasi cañcalāsyāṃ kṛtīsmarājñāyadi puṣkalāsyām//

—O my restless heart! Why are you getting impatient by watching that beautiful young girl with gracefully curved eye-brows and moonlike delightful face? I shall certainly have my wishes fulfilled if the commands of cupid have great influence over her.

Here the repetition of the word ‘lāsyām’ can be seen at the end of all the four feet.

Examples of samastapādādi yamaka (repetition at the beginning of all four feet) and samastapādamadhya yamaka (repetition in the middle of all four feet) have not been cited by Vāmana but the Kāmadhenu commentator has supplied illustrations for these two types of yamaka.

The example of samastapādādi yamaka is—

sārasā'laṃkṛtākārāsārasāmodanirbharā/
sārasālavṛtaprāntāsārasāḍhyāsarojinī//

—The lotus full of nectar is the ornament of the lake which is surrounded by the ‘śāla’ trees and with the presence of joyful cranes.

Here the repetition of the word ‘sārasā’ is at the beginning of all four feet.

The example of samastapādamadhya yamaka is—

sthirāyate yatendriyo na bhūyate yaterbhavān/
amāyateyate'pyabhūt sukhāya te yate'kṣayam//

Here the repetition of the word ‘yate yate’ is seen in the middle of all four feet. Again, the commentator shows a different variant of the samastapādamadya yamaka in the verse ‘sanākavanitam nitambaruciram’ etc^[3] .

In this verse the repetition can be seen in the middle of all the four feet but it is done with the help of separate set of repetition in every foot.

Vāmana clarifies that there can be many other mixed forms of pāda yamaka and the learned poets and critics can find them out—

anye ca saṅkarajātibhedāḥ sudhiyotprekṣyāḥ/

The akṣara yamaka, according to Vāmana, can be divided into two broad groups—ekākṣara yamaka or the repetition of one letter and anekākṣara yamaka or the repetition of more than one letter.

The example of ekākṣara yamaka has been given as—

nānākāreṇa kāntābhrūrārādhitamanobhuvā/
viviktena vilāsena tatakṣahṛdayaṃ nṛṇām//

—The hearts of men are impressed by the pure and varied charms of the eye-brow of the beloved which even pleases cupid.

At the beginning of each foot in this verse a letter has been repeated to create ekākṣara yamaka. The Kāmadhenu commentator has shown illustrations of the repetition of letters at other points of the verse in this connection^[4] .

Vāmana states that the repetition of letters can reach its excellence with the use of same or similar letters in close contiguity. He has also cited an illustration in support of his view from the ‘Hariprabodha-kāvya’—

vividhadhavavanānāgagarddharddhanānāvivitatagaganānāmamajjajjanānā/
ruruśaśalalanānāvabandhundhunānāmama hi hitatanānānanasvasvanānā//

—(Kṛṣṇa says to his brother Balarāma):—The land along the sea-shore is covered with jungle consisting of various kinds of ‘arjuna’ tree. The sky here is full of birds seeking after the snakes. The people have to bend their bodies to enter here (or it is devoid of human beings). The deer and the hare wander here. This place is capable of destroying our enemies and it fulfils my purpose. Though this land has no articulators of its own, its rustling utters its inner words in a mysterious way.

Vāmana maintains that yamaka becomes excellent by the use of ‘bhaṅga’ or breaks of letter—

bhaṅgādutkarṣaḥ/
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.3.

Also—

utkṛṣṭaṃ khalu yamakaṃ bhaṅgādbhavati/
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.3.

Also—

bhaṅgo nāmo varṇavicchedaḥ/
  —Kāmadhenu, Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.3.

There are three types of ‘bhaṅga’—śṛṅkhalā, parivartaka and cūrṇaka—

śṛṅkhalāparivartakaścūrṇamiti bhaṅgamārgaḥ/
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.4.

Vāmana defines ‘śṛṅkhalā’ as—

varṇavicchedacalanaṃ śṛṅkhalā/
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.5.

—When in a verse a word is meaningfully separated by breaks in its consisting letters it is called ‘śṛṅkhalā’. For example, in the verse “asajjanavaco yasya” etc previously quoted as an instance of ‘pādayamaka’ we come across a repetition of the word ‘kalikāmadhugarhitam’. Here in the first line the word is broken as ‘kalikāmadhuk-arhitam’ and in the second line as ‘kalikāmadhugarhitam’. In the first line the break is between ‘li’ and ‘ka’ whereas in the second line the break is transferred to between ‘kā’ and ‘ma’. This transfer of break in the same word has caused excellence of yamaka in the verse.

Therefore it is said that—

akhaṇḍavarṇavinyāsacalanaṃ śṛṅkhalā'malā/
anena khalu bhaṅgena yamakānāṃ vicitratā//
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.7.

—The yamaka becomes versatile with the break called ‘śṛṅkhalā’ which is caused by the transference of an entire letter.

Vāmana next defines ‘parivartaka’ as—

saṅgavinivṛttau svarūpāpattiḥ parivartakaḥ/
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.6.

—In the following vṛtti he clarifies this definition—

anyavarṇasaṃsargaḥ saṅgaḥ/ tadvinivṛttau svarūpasyānyavarṇatiraskṛtasyāpattiḥ prāptiḥ parivartakaḥ/
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.6.

—When the conjunction of letters is broken in a verse, a letter resumes its own form after being left alone by other conjunctive letters-this kind of break is called ‘parivartaka’. For example, in the said verse “asajjanavaco” etc, the word ‘kalikāmadhugarhitam’ is broken as ‘kalikāmadhuk-arhitam’. Thus the word ‘arhitam’ resumes its own form after its conjunction with the letter ‘k’ is broken up. The conjunction between the letters ‘k’ and ‘a’ created a new form in the shape of the letter ‘ga’ (garhitam). The ‘parivartaka bhaṅga’ initiates the breakup between the conjunctions and helps in understanding the import of the verse.

Vāmana also puts forth a verse showing the importance of ‘parivartaka bhaṅga’ in which it is compared to an actor who renounces one part and takes another—

yadnyasaṅgamutsṛjya nepathyamiva nartakaḥ/
śabdasvarūpamārohet sa jñeyaḥ parivartakaḥ//
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.7.

The ‘cūrṇaka bhaṅga’ has been defined as—

piṇḍākṣarabhede svarūpalopaścūrṇam/
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.7.

—When after the cessation of a conjunction a conjunct word disappears completely, it is called ‘cūrṇaka’ or ‘cūrṇam’.

The example of ‘cūrṇam’ has been shown as—

yo'calakulamavati calaṃ dūrasamunmuktaśuktimīnāṃ kāntaḥ/
sāgni vibharti ca salilaṃ dūrasamunmuktaśuktimīnāṅkāntaḥ//
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.7.

—The ocean that is griefless, lord of the fishes and embellished with signs of fishes and pearl-shells protects the family of mountains and bears within him water along with fire.

In this verse we have the repetition of the word ‘dūrasamunmuktaśuktimīnamkānta’ in the second and fourth feet. In the second foot the word stands for “dūre samunmuktāśuk śoko yena saḥ dūrasamunmuktaśuk, tathātimīnāṃ kāntaḥ priyaḥ” and in the fourth foot the word stands for “dūrasam unmuktāśuktayaḥ dūrasamunmuktaśuk, tathā mīnānām aṅkaḥ antabhāge yatra”. The word ‘śukti’ has been broken up to create these meanings. In the second foot, after the breakup of the conjunction, The word ‘śukti’ disappears completely and gives rise to two words—‘dūrasamunmuktaśuk’ and ‘timīnam’ and creates excellence in the use of yamaka.

The ‘cūrṇaka bhaṅga’ has been defined in a separate verse also—

piṇḍākṣarasya bhedena pūrvāparapadāśrayāt/
varṇayoḥ padalopo yaḥ sa bhaṅgaścūrṇasaṃjñakaḥ//
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.7.

Vāmana also cites a verse which gives supreme importance to the ‘cūrṇaka bhaṅga’ as the chief beautifier of yamaka—

aprāptacūrṇabhaṅgāni yathāsthānasthitānyapi/
alakānīva nātyarthaṃ yamakāni cakāsati//
  —Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.7.

—Just like the hair looks charmless without curls even though in its proper place, the yamakas do not create excellence devoid of ‘cūrṇa bhaṅga’ even if they are placed in proper manner.

Vāmana has also pointed out that if the ‘bhaṅga’ is created by the transformation of case-ending it is disregarded by the learned people. Again, a word which is frequently made the object of yamaka should not be further made an object of anuprāsa^[5] . The wonderful yamaka is created by the cessation of case-endings as regards to both number and case and also by the repetition of nouns and verbs^[6] .

Udbhaṭa, though being a probable contemporary of Vāmana, has surprisingly omitted yamaka in his treatment of poetic figures. Rudraṭa has devoted the entire third chapter of his ‘Kāvyālaṃkāra’ to a comprehensive discussion on yamaka.

He defines yamaka as the repetition of letters which sound same to the ears and which follow a specific order—

tulyaśrutikramāṇāmanyārthānāṃ mithastu varṇānām/
punarāvṛttiryamakaṃ prāyaśchandāṃsi viṣayo'sya//
  —Kāvyalaṃkāra (of Rudraṭā) 3.1.

—He divides yamaka into two broad groups—samastapādaja or sarvaja and ekadeśaja. The first type samastapādaja can be again sub-divided into three kinds—pādāvṛttyā, ardhavṛttyā and ślokavṛttyā^[7] . These yamakas consist of several varieties like sandaṃśa, āvṛtti, garbham, saṃdaṣṭakam, paṅkti, puccha, samudgaka, mahāyamaka etc. which are all separately identified, defined and classified by Rudraṭā. He finally admits that as the yamakas do not have a static and regular place or shape of projections it is impossible to determine the exact number of its varieties^[8] .

Ānandavardhana has recommended the use of yamaka in poetry to heighten ‘rasābhāsa’ only. He also has pointed out that the yamaka needs special efforts on the part of the poet to become excellent^[9] .

The Agnipurāṇa has not enumerated yamaka as a specific verbal figure but has treated it as a variety of anuprāsa.

The Agnipurāṇa defines yamaka in accordance to the notions of Bhāmaha, Vāmana and Rudraṭa—

anekavarṇāvṛttiryābhinnārthapratipādikāyamakam/
  —Agnipurāṇa, 343.11-12.

—The Purāṇa divides the figure into two kinds—avyapetam and vyapetam.

These varieties are based on the repetition of syllable affected with or without other intervening syllables^[10] . The numerous other classifications of yamaka shown in the Purāṇa are more or less taken from earlier rhetoricians like Bharata, Bhāmaha, Daṇḍin, Vāmana and Rudraṭa.

Bhoja is of quite the same opinion as that of the Agnipurāṇa in respect of the definition and primary classifications of yamaka—

vibhinnārthaikarūpāyāyāvṛttivarṇasaṃhate/
avyapetavyayetātmāyamakaṃ tannigadyate//
  —Sarasvatī-kaṇṭhābharaṇa (of Bhoja) 2.58.

—He also follows Daṇḍin in stating the yamaka has endless varieties which are either difficult or easy to compose^[11] .

Mammaṭa, in his Kāvyaprakāśa, has defined yamaka in accordance to his predecessors Bhāmaha, Daṇḍin and Rudraṭa—

arthe satyarthabhinnānāṃ varṇānāṃ sāpunaḥ śrutiryamakam/
  —Kāvya-prakāśa (of Mammaṭa) 9.117.

—He divides yamaka into two broad groups—pādavṛtti and pādabhāgavṛtti. He includes the sub-varieties of yamaka propounded by his predecessors in these two groups. He also illustrates a few of these varieties with example verses taken from Rudraṭa’s Kāvyālaṃkāra and Ānandavardhana’s Devīśataka.

Ruyyaka has defined yamaka as repetition of a group of letters comprising consonants and vowels—

svaravyañjanasamudāyapaunaruktaṃ yamakam/
  —Alaṃkārasarvasva (of Ruyyaka) p-21.

—He also divides yamaka into three primary types in his vṛtti.

They are formed when both the reduplicated words are significant, when one word is significant and the other is non-significant and when both the words are non-significant—

atra kvacidbhinnārthatvaṃ kvacidabhinnārthatvaṃ kvacidekasyānarthakatvamaparasya sārthakatvamiti saṃkṣepataḥ prakāratrayam/
  —ibid.

Hemacandra defines yamaka in a similar way like Mammaṭā—

satyarthe'nyārthānāṃ varṇānāṃ śrutikramaikye yamakam/
  —Kāvyānuśāsana (of Hemacandra) 5.2.

—He also states that in this definition the word ‘śrutaikya’ suggests that even if the reduplicated words are grammatically or phonetically slightly different, they can comprise yamaka. Again, the letters that comprise yamaka must come in exact order or ‘kramaikya’. Therefore, ‘saro rasaḥ’ etc cannot be regarded as yamaka. The word ‘anyārtha’ used in the definition implies that if the reduplicated words carry exactly the same sense or meaning, they will not form yamaka. Meaningless words if reduplicated will also not form yamaka as the definition includes the word ‘satyarthe’ (having meaning or sense). Hemacandra has shown a large number of varieties of yamaka which alike Mammaṭa fall under two broad divisions ‘pādavṛtti’ and ‘pādabhāgavṛtti’. He clearly states that the endless variety of yamaka only exhibit the powers of versatility possessed by a poet and they do not instruct the readers in any of the four goals of life or ‘puruṣārthas’. They are therefore regarded as ‘kāvyagaḍu’. ‘Gaḍu’ is a joint of sugarcane which has no juice in it. The yamakas when used excessively in a poetic composition can cause hindrance in the enjoyment of rasa^[12] .

Vāgbhaṭa I (Senior), in his Vāgbhaṭālaṃkāra, has defined yamaka as—

syātpādapadavarṇānāmāvṛttiḥ saṃyutāyutā/
yamakaṃ bhinnavācyānāmādimadhyāntagocaram//
  —VKL. 4.22.

—He clearly indicates that the yamaka can consist of the repetition of both letters (varṇa) or syllables (akṣara) and words or feet (pāda). The yamaka can further be classified into two groups (saṃyutāvṛtti and ayutāvṛtti) in accordance to the type of repetition or ‘āvṛtti’.

Vāgbhaṭa II (junior), in his Kāvyānuśāsana, has defined yamaka as—

tulyaṃ śrutikramākṣarāvṛttiryamakam/
  —Kāvyānuśāsana (of Vāgbhaṭā II) Chapter-IV, p-51.

—This definition is clearly borrowed from Rudraṭā.

Vāgbhaṭa also divides yamaka into four broad groups—

1. śloakayamaka,
2. ślokārdhayamaka,
3. pādayamaka and
4. pādabhāgayamaka^[13] .

Vidyādhara follows Ruyyaka closely in his definition of yamaka—

idameva svarasahitaṃ vyañjanasamudāyamāśritaṃ yamakam/
  —Ekāvalī (of Vidyādhara) 7.4.

—He also points out in accordance to Hemacandra that it is often seen that the yamakas cause impediments in the realisation of rasa^[14] .

Vidyānātha has defined yamaka in a similar way to his predecessor Ruyyaka and Mammaṭā—

yamakaṃ paunarukte tu svaravyañjanayugmayoḥ/
  —Pratāparudrayaśobhūṣaṇa (of Vidyānātha) Chapter-VII, p-343.

—Viśvanātha has tried to accumulate the views of his predecessors regarding yamaka in his definition of the figure—

satyarthe pṛthagarthāyāḥ svaravyañjanasaṃhate/
krameṇa tenairvyāvṛttiryamakaṃ vinigadyate//
  —Sāhitya-darpaṇa (of Viśvanātha) 10.8.

—Keśavamiśra has also furnished a comprehensive definition of yamaka which is inspired by the definition of Hemacandra—

atulyārthatve samānānupūrvīviśeṣaviśiṣṭaniyamavyañjanasamudāyābhyāso yamakam/
  —Alaṃkāraśekhara (of Keśavamiśra) 10th marīci.

—He also states that there are eighty-seven (87) sub-varieties of yamaka^[15] .

Kavikarṇapūra, in his Alaṃkārakaustubha, has also defined yamaka in a traditional way—

yamakaṃ tvarthabhinnānāṃ padādīnāṃ samākṛtiḥ/
  —Alaṃkāra-kaustubha (of Kavikarṇāpūra) 7.206.

—He has mentioned forty (40) varieties of yamaka and illustrated them aptly.

From the various definitions of yamaka furnished by the Sanskrit rhetoricians we can sketch out some of the common characteristic features of this verbal figure. They are as follows—

i) Yamaka is basically the repetition of letters, syllables or words which create charming effect in poetic composition.

ii) This repetition can be done even if the words are grammatically or phonetically slightly different.

iii) The words or letters which are repeated must come in proper order.

iv) The repeated words must have different meanings.

v) The yamaka can be implied in various places of the verse.

The definition, characteristics, classification and numerous illustrations of yamaka put forth by Vāmana has successfully shown the variety and grandeur of the figure of speech in Sanskrit poetry. Again, the instruction given by him regarding breaks (bhaṅgas) is a useful guideline for aspiring poets who want to impart the figure of speech in their poetic composition.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

tatra śabdālaṃkārau dvau yamakānuprāsau krameṇa darśayitumāha…/
  —KLSV 4.1.1.

[2]:

pādāntayamakaṃ caiva kāñcīyamakameva ca/
samudrayamakaṃ caiva vikrāntayamakaṃ tathā//
yamakaṃ cakravālaṃ ca sandaṣṭayamakaṃ tathā/
pādādiyamakañcaiva āmreḍitamathāpi ca//
caturvyasitañcaiva mālāyamakameva ca/
etaddaśavidhaṃ jñeyaṃ yamakaṃ nāṭakāśrayam//
  — Nāṭyaśāstra (of Bharata) 17.99-101.

[3]:

sanākavanitaṃ nitambaruciraṃ ciraṃ suninadairnadairvṛtamamum/
matāphaṇavato'vato rasaparāparāstavasudhāsudhā'dhivasati//
  —Kāmadhenu, Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.2.

[4]:

sabhāsu rājannasurāhatairmukhairmahīsurāṇāṃ vasurājitaiḥ stutāḥ/
na bhāsurāyānti surānna te guṇāḥ prajāsu rāgātmasu rāśitāṃ gatāḥ //

Also—akalaṅkaśaśāṅkāṅkāṅkāmindumaulermatirmama/
  —Kāmadhenu, Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.2.

[5]:

vibhaktipariṇāmena yatra bhaṅgaḥ kvacidbhavet/
na tadicchanti yamaka yamakotkarṣakovidāḥ//
ārūḍhaṃ bhūyasāyattu padaṃ yamakabhūmikām/
duṣyeccenna punastasya yuktānuprāsakalpanā//
  — Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.7.

[6]:

vibhaktīnāṃ vibhaktatvaṃ saṃkhyāyāḥ kārakasya ca/
āvṛttiḥ suptiṅtānāṃ mithaśca yamakādbhutam//
  — Kāvyālaṃkārasūtravṛtti (of Vāmana) 4.1.7.

[7]:

pūrvaṃ dvibhedametat samstapādaikadeśajatvena/
pādārdhaśokānāmāvṛttyāsarvajaṃ tredhā//
  — Kāvyalaṃkāra (of Rudraṭā) 3.2.

[8]:

yamakānāṃ gatireṣādeśāvayavavapekṣāmānām/
aniyatadeśāvayavaṃ tvaparamasaṃkhyaṃ sadevāsti//
  — Kāvyalaṃkāra (of Rudraṭā) 3.56.

[9]:

yamakādinibandhe tu prthagyatno'sya jāyate/
śaktasyāpi rase'ṅgatvaṃ tasmādeṣāṃ na vidyate//
rasābhāsāṅgabhāvastu yamakāderna vāryate/
dhvanyātmabhūte śṛṅgāre tvaṅgatānopapadyate//
  — Dhvanyāloka (of Ānandavardhana) 2.16 (vṛtti).

[10]:

yamakaṃ sāvyapetañca vyapetañceti taddvidhā/
ānantaryādavyapetaṃ vyapetaṃ taṃ vyavadhānataḥ//
  —Agnipurāṇa, 343.12.

[11]:

atyantabahavasteṣāṃ bhedāḥ saṃbhedayonayaḥ/
sukarāduṣkarāścaiva darśyante tatra kecana//
  — Sarasvatī-kaṇṭhābharaṇa (of Bhoja) 2.62.

[12]:

etasya ca kaviśaktikhyāpanamātraphalatvena
puruṣārthopadeśānupāyatvātkāvyagaḍubhūtateti/
  — Kāvyānuśāsana (of Hemacandra) 5.3 (vṛtti).

[13]:

tacca ślokaślokārdhapādabhāgabhedairanekadhā/
  — Kāvyānuśāsana (of Vāgbhaṭā II) Chapter-IV, p-51.

[14]:

prāyaśo yamake citre rasapuṣṭirna dṛśyate/
  — Ekāvalī (of Vidyādhara) 7.5.

[15]:

taccedaṃ saṃkṣepeṇa saptāśītiprakāramiti cānyatra vistaraḥ/
  —Alaṃkāraśekhara (of Keśavamiśra) 10th marīci. p-29.