Chapter 5 - Conclusion

The work entitled, The Warfare and the Military System in the Vedic Literature-A Study concentrates on a survey of the offensive and defensive system of the Vedic Āryan people. During the Vedic period, there was no systematic works on the political science. But the Vedic literature contains passages, which throw considerable light on the theory and practices of the administrative system in the ancient times. The Vedas are the prominent works of Indian culture and civilization where the political, social and cultural aspects of the then India are reflected. Thus, the Vedic texts give a clear idea of the civilization of a very remote past by representing people’s life and culture. Later on, the Epics like the Mahābhārata, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Smṛti texts, such as, the Manusmṛti, the Yājñavalkyasmṛti, Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra, etc., also furnish the information of the political system of the respective period. The origin of warfare goes back to the remote past when people lived in wandering groups. The Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, which is the earliest extent record of the Āryans states that the Āryan population was spread from Afghanistan to Eastern India upto the Ganges including the Punjab, Kashmir and parts of Sind and Rajputana. Thus, the three rivers became the Āryan homeland, viz. first the Sindhu and its tributaries, second, the Sarasvatī with its tributaries and last, the Gangetic valley.

The Āryans settled in the Sapta-Sindhu region in the Ṛgvedic age and in the later period they were expanded in all the directions in India. When they entered into the Indus valley, they had to meet the stiff resistance of the non-Āryan people whom they called Dāsas or Dasyus. For their settlement in India, the Āryans had to fight with them. Thus, war became an integral part of their life, which has been recognised as a necessary evil. War generally implies hostilities and armed conflicts between the nations or states or between groups of people. Sometimes, people fought among themselves for supremacy. Wars generally happened to control natural resources, for political balance of power and sometimes for religious or cultural reasons. For that purpose, they were organised in various groups and fought under the headship of their groups. The Ṛgveda-saṃhitā is the oldest record of the Indian military system, where the battle of the ten kings is narrated. Later, the Saṃhitās, the Brāhmaṇas, the Sūtra texts also give the evidences of the growth of the warfare, which deals with the activities involved in war such as composition of the army, use of weapons and armours, use of war flag, fortification and siegecraft, military music, military camp, battle arrays, etc.

The present study of warfare is based on the Vedic Saṃhitās, the Brāhmaṇas, the Āraṇyakas and the Sūtra texts also. The materials are elaborated and analysed through a comparative study of the various relevant texts. The commentators’ views are also discussed thoroughly, as and when found relevant.

The study comprises five chapters. The First Chapter is the Introductory Chapter, which deals with the history of warfare. At the very outset, the Chapter contains a brief note on the Vedic literature, which is regarded as the best source of socio-political history of ancient India. The term veda, which is derived from the root vid, primarily means knowledge and secondarily the whole Vedic literature, viz. Mantra, Brāhmaṇa, Āraṇyaka and the Upaniṣad. The Vedic literature contains the six Vedāṅgas also, which are associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas.

In the earlier stage of civilisation, war was regarded as a normal feature of life. As war became an integral part of their life, the Kṣatriya or the warrior class arose during the ancient period. Their highest duty was to protect the state from the enemies. The whole world is subject to the might of their arms. From the early Vedic period, the Āryans had to fight with the Dāsas, who were opposite to the Āryans in religious habits and they spoke hostile speech. The Vedic texts furnish references to various wars between the Āryans and the Dāsas. Among the battles during the Vedic period, the battle of the ten kings (dāśarājñayuddha) is the most prominent one. This fight took place on the Paruṣṇī river between Sudās, the king or chief of the Tṛtsu tribe, and the ten kings of Alinas, Pakthas, Bhalānas, Śivas, Viṣāṇins, Anus, Druhyus, Yadus, Turvaśas and Pūrus. Sudās also fought against another three non-Āryan tribes, viz. Ajas, Śigrus and Yakṣus. Besides the Dāsas, the Paṇis were also the enemies of the Āryans. They were engaged in trade and commerce, and lived on the banks of the Gaṅgā along with their king Bṛbu. Vala was their patron god. Indra with the help of the Maruts destroyed the Paṇis. The Kīkatas were also the non-Āryan tribe who fought with the Bharatas. Another class of people called the Matsyas, also fought with the king Turvaśa. The Piśācas were also the enemies of the Āryans as well as the gods. During the early Vedic period, there was no standing army to protect the country. At that time, the viś or the common people served as the fighting people. So, the people prayed for the birth of brave sons to protect their state. At first, people fought on foot with the weapons of wood and stone or bamboo sticks. Later on, they discovered the use of metals and made various types of weapons. The Āryan people not only fought with the nonĀryan tribes, but also fought among themselves for supremacy. Though the Āryan and the Dāsas were the enemies, yet sometimes, they established friendly relationship with each other, which is referred to in the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā (Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, 8.46.32)

The Asuras were also the enemies of the Āryans as well as gods. The term deva is derived from the root div, which means to shine. Again, the term asura was meant for the powerful. So, at first this term was used to indicate the Devas to denote their powers. Elsewhere, in some Ṛgvedic verses the term asura was used as an epithet of gods, like Varuṇa, Indra, Agni, Rudra, etc. But later, this term was used to denote the evil power, who acted as the opposition of the gods. The Asuras always tried to become more powerful than the Devas and for that they fought with the Devas. The Vedic gods like Indra, Agni, Rudra, Soma, the Maruts, etc., have some warlike character, which are also highlighted in the present chapter. The Vedic hymns praise them in the form of warriors. Among them, Indra is prayed as the divine prototype of war-lord in several verses. He is the leader among the gods in their war with the Asuras. He is the slayer of the Dasyus, so he is called the dasyuhantā. Agni as a typical leader fought with the Dasyus and protected his worshippers. Rudra also as a warrior is depicted as holding thousands of weapons in his hand. The Maruts helped Indra in his fighting against Vṛtra with their particular weapon ṛṣṭi. Soma also fought against the Dāsas and defeated his foes. Besides them, gods like Bṛhaspati, Viṣṇu, Pūṣan, etc., also have warlike character, who had helped Indra in his fighting against the Dāsas or Dasyus.

The Second Chapter is entitled, Military System as Revealed in the Vedic Texts. First of all it deals with the kingship and warfare. The king became the keystone of the military and administrative arch. To indicate their highest power and prestige, a king was variously designated as—samrāj, adhirāja, ekarāj, svarāj etc.

The kingship was usually succeeded to the throne by virtue of his hereditary right. But while befitting a successor was not found, the king was sometimes elected. His prime duty was to protect the state from internal disturbance and foreign invasion. He was the upholder and guardian of law. The king was the supreme commander in war. It was his duty to keep well-equipped and well-organised armed forces to protect his state. The term senā was used to indicate a host of army, and a commander or leader of the army was called Senānī. The king was expert in the theory and practice of war and well-versed in the art of organisation. It was his duty to see that all the branches of the army were properly equipped and were kept at their highest efficiency. The Vedic texts refer to the fourfold division of army, viz. charioteers, cavalry, infantry and elephantry. They were looked upon as indispensable in warfare. Among these, the charioteers were indispensable in warfare of the Vedic age. There are references to the chariots in the Saṃhitās and the Brāhmaṇas. The sixth maṇḍala of the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā contains a hymn in praise of war-chariots. The chariot was usually a small-sized two-wheeled vehicle drawn by horses, but sometimes asses, camels, etc., were also used for drawing chariots. Though there are references to the use of horses in warfare during the early Vedic period, yet cavalry as a disciplined armed force is mentioned in the later Vedic age. Horse-riding and fighting on horseback formed an obligatory part in the Vedic and Epic warfare. The infantry or foot-soldiers were also mentioned in the Vedic texts.

The term asāda is used in the sense of foot-soldiers (Vide, Sāyaṇa, Atharvaveda-saṃhitā , 11.12.24). The elephants played an important part in the Vedic warfare. The elephants were used in war as combatants. Because of their large bodily frame, they are able not only to destroy the arrayed armies of the enemies, their forts and camps, but also to undertake works that are threat to life. It is also noticed that, women often took an part in the warfare. They encouraged their husbands in the battlefield and sometimes they fought against their enemies. In such cases, the Vedic texts give the references of Viśpalā, Mudgalānī, Vāc, etc.

In the Vedic literature, there are references to the various types of weapons. They used various types of weapons to attack the enemy and also to demolish the forts or walls of the enemy. In the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā, the seventy-fifth hymn of the sixth maṇḍala, mentions a number of weapons used in warfare. Among these, bows and arrows were the principal weapons of the Āryans, and the manufacture of bows and arrows were a regular profession of the Vedic people. The spears, lances, axes, swords, discuss, thunderbolt, etc., were also used in the early and later Vedic period. The Vedic Āryans used the protective armours also in the battlefield. They used varman, kavaca, drāpi, etc., to protect their bodies. They also used the helmets to protect their heads, which are termed as śiprā, ayaḥśiprā, hiriśiprā, etc. Again, hastaghna and hastatra were used by the warriors to protect their hands from the frictions of bow strings.

The Vedic Āryans made the uses of forts as defensive measures to protect their cities. The terms pur, pura, durga, dehī, etc., were used in the Vedic texts to mean the fort. Each of the forts was in charge of an officer variously known as Pūrpati, Durgādhyakṣa, etc. The fort was made of stone or iron and it was pṛthvī and ūrvī, i.e. broad and wide in size. Sometimes the strongholds were used to hold the cattle, which were known from the term gomatī, a fort full of kine. The autumnal forts, śatabhuji forts, i.e. having countless walls, moving forts, etc., were also referred to in the Vedic Saṃhitās. They used Agni in their siege operations. The last part of this chapter has discussed about the military espionage, which played an important role in the military affairs. The dūta acted as a messenger or envoy, whose duty was to inform the king about his own kingdom and of his foes. They functioned as an intermediary between two opposing factions. The dūta was sent to the enemy camp to convey the messages of warfare and also sometimes to make agreement between the troops.

The Third Chapter is entitled, The Religious Observances and Other Beliefs Related to the Warfare. In this Chapter, the role of the royal priest in warfare and his characteristics, war music, encouragement of troops, and various religious beliefs and other practices related to warfare are discussed. The Puruṣasūkta of the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā mentions the fourfold division of the society, viz, the Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya and Śūdra. Among these four castes, the Brāhmaṇas are the priestly class. The Brāhmaṇa performed the Bṛhaspatisava sacrifice to become the royal Purohita. The royal Purohita helped the king in smooth running of the government. He was to be proficient in spiritual knowledge as well as in political science. He was well versed in the knowledge of statecraft. He figured as one of the king’s jewels. The royal Purohita was the well-wisher and adviser of the king during the Vedic period and the king followed his instructions. The king went to the battlefield with his Purohita where he took ritualistic steps to ensure his victory. He was to protect the state by counteracting the magical charms of the enemy and ensuring its prosperity by performing the requisite rituals. He consecrated the war elephants and horses of the state army in order to enhance their military efficiency. He was one half of the king’s soul. By his prayers, sacrifices, charms and incantations, he was to protect the kingdom and enriched the country. The Purohita was the physician, friend, philosopher, preceptor and spiritual guide of the king. Without him nothing could be done by the king.

The Vedic Āryans had the knowledge of various arts. Among these, music, dance, playing on various musical instruments also occupied an important place in the Vedic Āryans life. Warfare music was one of the important features of the Vedic warfare and the history of military music in India goes back to the early Vedic period. The instruments used in producing battle music were many and varied, which were, viz. drum, trumpet, horn, tambourine, conch-shell, etc. The army marched to the battlefield with the playing of these instruments. It was also used as battle signal calling upon all the fighters to assemble. The Ṛgveda-saṃhitā and the Atharvaveda-saṃhitā contain hymns in praise of the war drum. The musical instruments like, Dundubhi, Karkari, Baṃkura or Bakura, Bherī, Paṭaha, Mṛdaṅga, etc., were used to encourage the soldiers. In the battlefield, besides the fighters, there were musicians, drummers, dancers, etc., in every troop to encourage the soldiers. With the loud and sonorous sound of the war drum, the dancers danced in their wild excitement to encourage the warriors to fight bravely in the battlefield. The Purohita and the commander also sometimes delivered speech to encourage the warriors. The last part of this chapter has furnished a very valuable and elaborate account of the rituals related to warfare. The rites and rituals related to warfare have been discussed with special reference to the Kauśikasūtra and the Atharvavedapariśiṣṭa. The Kauśikasūtra describes a number of rituals related to warfare. The Kṣatriya performed the Rājasūya, the Vājapeya, the Aśvamedha sacrifices to become supreme sovereign. The Rājasūya sacrifice was performed to become a rājā and the Vājapeya sacrifice was performed to become a samrāṭ. Before going to the battlefield, the Purohita stands to the west of the king’s chariot and gives the armour, bow, arrows, etc., to the king with the recitation of the particular hymns from the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā. For the selection of the warrior, the Purohita performed the sacrifice on behalf of the king where he sacrificed a water vessel with the recitation of the Atharvavedic verses and looked for the reflection of the warriors along with the king. A warrior was not selected to go to the battlefield, which was not seen in the reflection. To destroy the enemy and to gain victory in the battlefield, various rites were also performed by the king, such as, Senākarma, Sāṃgrāmika, Saptnakṣayana, Jayakarma, Iṣunivāraṇakarma, Rathārohaṇa, Ārogyavijñāna, etc.

Various woods like Vādhaka, Khādira, Aśvattha, Iṅgida, Śara, Karimālaka, Eraṇḍa, Palāśa, etc., were used by the Purohita to perform the sacrifices. The priest offered the ghee, barley, puroḍāśa, etc., in Agni with the recitation of the various Atharvavedic hymns in these sacrifices. The king marched to the battlefield on an auspicious constellation, which is referred to in the Atharvavedapariśiṣṭa. Under the Kṛttikā constellation, the king took up the arms and marched ahead for fighting under the Ārdrā or Punarvasū constellation or he should drive his army to fight under the Pusyā constellation. Thus, the Purohita enjoyed a vital role in performing various rituals for the welfare of the kingdom.

The Fourth Chapter is entitled, Principles and Ethics Related to the Warfare. In the ancient period, the Vedic Āryans followed some general principles and ethics in their war. The term war invokes both political and theological ideology. The ethics of war generally involve the moral limits and possibilities of the conflict. The Vedic people followed some rules and regulations during the war time. In the Vedic period, three types of war existed, viz. land warfare, naval warfare and aerial warfare. The dāśarājñayuddha or battle of ten kings is the best example of land warfare. During the Vedic period, river banks were often selected for land warfare. Though the Vedic texts do not give the clear references of naval and aerial warfare, yet it is stated that the Aśvins rescued and conveyed Bhujyu by using the swift ships. Elsewhere, it is described that the Aśvins rescued Tugra’s son with animated ship with wings. So, it is clear that the Vedic Āryans knew the art of navigation and aerial warfare. But it was well developed in the Epic period. Wars were generally of two types—dharmayuddha and kūṭayuddha. The distinction between these two wars was not clearly mentioned in the Vedic texts, but it was clearly discussed in the later Vedic literature. In the Vedic period, the Āryan people knew both dharmayuddha and kūṭayuddha. During the Vedic period, wars generally happened for cattle, as cattle-lifting was their aim at that time. So, the term gaviṣṭi is used to mean the battle in the Saṃhitās, which means desire for cattle. Sometimes, they fought for jealousy or to become supreme sovereign, which was considered as the psychological factor of the war. The terms like dhvaja, ketu, sahasraketu, etc., were used to indicate the war flag. Sometimes the warriors used the sun as their ensign in their flag. The warrior used the flag in the battlefield as a symbol of their victory. When the warriors surrendered or were defeated by the enemies, then they lowered their flag. The warrior should stand firmly in the battle and not to retreat. It was not sin for the warrior, if he died or injured in the battlefield, but it was sin for him if he retreated. The killing or injuring in the battle was not regarded as a sin for the warrior; but they should not kill the women, children, aged men, Brāhmaṇas, messengers, those who are insane, intoxicated or terrified, those who have lost their horses, chariots or arms, those who have joined their hands in supplication, those who have fled with their dishevelled hair, those who have laid down their arms, who have declared themselves that they are cows, those who are with their faces turned aside, who are sitting, etc. They also followed the rule strictly that a rathī should fight with rathī, footmen with footmen or cavalry with another cavalry. Division of property was also another important feature of the Vedic warfare. After the war, the king divided the booty among the warriors. He divided the property among the warriors and the vehicles like horses, chariots, elephants, etc., were taken for him. The king selected a suitable site for the camping; especially they selected the banks of the rivers for the camp. The concept of battle array was not well developed in the Vedic period, though some references of battle array are met with the Vedas. The deployment and drawing up of an army in the array form was the chief part of the plan of battle, which should be arranged in accordance with the nature of the ground. During the Vedic period, after the war, the dead bodies were collected and burned or sometimes threw into the narrow pit. From the above discussion, it is clear that the laws of war came to formulated and strictly followed in the Vedic period.

On the whole, it can be deduced that for knowing the ancient military system and warfare of the Āryan people, a thorough study of the Vedic literature is most efficacious. It embodies a detailed scenario of the method and art of warfare from the ancient period. During the early Vedic period, people lived in small groups or tribes and migrated from place to place for food or to graze herds, and for that fight had happened. At that time, warfare was developed as an art and craft of the Vedic Āryans. It became the most important part of the statecraft and administration of justice. Fighting with the enemy and to protect the state became the essential and prime duty of the king. In order to protect his kingdom from external incursions and internal disorders, every king had to maintain an efficient army. The principles of war ethics, mirrored in the Vedic texts exhibit the sterner side of the Vedic ethics, which have a direct bearing on the present-day military system also. Thus, it can be said that a true warlike spirit prevailed among the people during the Vedic period.