Position of Upaniṣads in Vedic and Philosophical Literature

The Upaniṣads occupy a unique position in the Vedic and philosophical literature. The philosophical essence of the Vedas have been incorporated in the Upaniṣads. The seers of the Upaniṣad received the knowledge of the Ultimate Reality not through sense perception or power of intellect, but through inner vision directly from the source of intuition and through contemplation and meditation.^[1] The Upaniṣads are the compositions of the concluding part of the Vedic period. Without the Upaniṣads the Vedic and philosophical study can never be completed.

Indeed various philosophical ideas of the Ṛgveda, Yajurveda, Sāmaveda and the Atharvaveda are elaborately discussed in the Upaniṣads. The same idea of the Puruṣa-sūkta of the Ṛgveda^[2] is again and again found to be expressed in the Upaniṣadic discussions. Similarly the discussion of the Aśvamedha sacrifice and the description of the account of creation in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad also remind us about the Puruṣa hymn.^[3] The idea of ‘catuṣpād-brahma’ in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad^[4], ‘mukhādvāg, vāco’gni, manasaścandramā’ of the Aitareya Upaniṣad;^[5] ‘tripād brahma’, ‘ādityaścakṣuḥ’ of the maitrāyaṇyupaniṣad;^[6] ‘padvyāṃ pṛthivī’,^[7], ‘tasmādṛcaḥ sāma’,^[8] ‘tasmāccadevābahudhā’^[9] and ‘puruṣa evedaṃ viśvam’^[10] of the Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad; ‘śahasraśīrṣā puruṣaḥ’, ‘sahasrākṣaḥ śahasrapāt,’ ‘puruṣa evedaṃ sarvaṃ yadbhūtaṃ yacca bhavyam’^[11] of the Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad, etc., directly point out to the Puruṣa sūkta of the Ṛgveda.

Upaniṣads have been influenced by the celebrated Ṛgvedic ‘Asyavāmīyasūkta’^[12] to a great extent. The Chāndogya Upaniṣadic concept ‘ekena mṛtpiṇḍena sarvaṃ mṛṇmayaṃ vijñātaṃ syād’..’^[13] is indeed found in the ‘Asyavāmīya-sūkta’ in its ‘ekaṃ sadviprā bahudhā vadanti’^[14] The famous Muṇḍaka Upaniṣadic mantra, ‘dvā suparṇā sayūjā sakhāyā..’^[15] Which is repeated again in Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad^[16] may be originated from this sūkta again.^[17] The idea of Śvetaśvatara Upaniṣad, ‘ṛco akṣare parame vyomanyasmindevā adhi viśve niṣeduḥ..’^[18] is also can be seen in this sūkta again.^[19]

The impact of the Ṛgvedic songs on the Upaniṣads also cannot be ignored. The doctrines of death, rebirth, movement of the soul, the devayāna and the pitṛyāna, etc., are frequently found in the Upaniṣadic discussions. It is very remarkable that most of the imformations in this context come from the Ṛgvedic songs.^[20]

The Aitareya Upaniṣad mentions the Ṛgvedic Vāmadeva-sūkta^[21] when it discusses on the phenomenon of birth.^[22] It is memorable that the concept of three births in the Upaniṣad have its root from this sūkta of Vāmadeva.^[23]

The Ṛgveda has not only supplied the fundamental concepts but adequate elegant expressions also to the Upaniṣads. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad in the discussion of the dreaming-state says that, ‘na tatrānandā mudaḥ pramudo bhavantyathānandān mudaḥ pramudaḥ sṛjate’^[24] and this concept has been clearly highlighted in the Ṛgveda in its ‘yatra ānandāśca modāśca mudaḥ pramuda āsate.’^[25] The Brahmavallī of the Taittirīya Upaniṣad also has its root from Ṛgvedic sūkta of Mārica Kāśyapa.^[26] In this sūkta of Mārica Kāśyapa, we acquire the concept of ṛta, satya, śraddhā, ānanda, moda, pramoda, anarasa, somarasa, etc., and these concepts possess a significant part in the discussions of the Upaniṣads and their basic tenets of a sacred and ideal life.^[27]

The concept of madhu-vidyā, found in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad,^[28] is no doubt has its source taken from the Ṛgveda.^[29] The famous mantra in the Vedāntic regards, ‘rūpam rūpam pratirūpo babhūva tadasya rūpam praticakṣaṇāya indro māyābhiḥ pururūpa īyate yukta hi asya harayaḥ śatādaśa,’ come from the song of Bhāradvāja Garga and the picture of the bird in the mantra ‘puraścakre dvipade puraścakre catuṣpadaḥ, puraḥ sa pakṣi bhūtvā puraḥ puruṣa āviśaditi,’ may be originate from the Atharvaveda.^[30]

Another important concept taken from the Ṛgveda by the Upaniṣads is that of Vāk which is a ‘holy cow’ to the poets of the Ṛgveda. “The Vāk accordingly is not merely a means of discourse between the human beings but in itself is an allpervading deity in which the universe is unified and which the sages, the ṛṣis, have realised in their visions.”^[31] We can find a touching and philosophically very magnificent description of this Vāk in the celebrated Vāgāmbhṛṇīya-sūkta^[32] and Jñāna-sūkta.^[33] The Upaniṣads have discussed the eminent concept about the Vāk. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad states, ‘vāg vai brahma’,^[34] ‘vāgvai samrāt paramaṃ brahma’^[35] and ‘sarveṣāṃ vedānāṃ vāgekāyanam.’^[36]

Most of the concept discussed in the different Upaniṣads have their root in the Ṛgveda. The Muṇḍaka Upaniṣadic view, ‘yathā nadyaḥ syandamānāḥ samudre’staṃ gacchanti nāmarūpe vihāya..’^[37] is no doubt the concept taken from ‘samānām ūrvam nadyaḥ pṛṇanti’ of Gṛtsamada (II.35.3) and ‘āpo śravanti samudrārthāḥ’ of Vaśiṣṭha (VII.49.2) of the Ṛgveda.^[38] The famous Praśna Upanisaṣdic mantra, ‘arā iva rathanābhau prāṇe sarvaṃ pratiṣṭhitam’^[39] which has been reflected again in the Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad,^[40] in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad,^[41] in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad,^[42] and also in the Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad,^[43] this famous philosophical expression has been taken from the song of Syūmaraśmi Bhārgava in ‘rathānāṃ na ye arāḥ sanābhayaḥ’ (X.78.4) of the Ṛgveda.^[44] Again ‘bahava ime’sminpuruṣe kāmā’…’ of the Chāndogya Upaniṣad,^[45] has taken its source from the Ṛgvedic expression ‘pulukāmo hi martyaḥ’ (I.179. 5).^[46] In this way, It may be said that the Ṛgveda has a remarkable impact on the ideas and expressions of the Upaniṣad.

In the sameway, the Atharvaveda has also influenced the Upaniṣads. The discussion of the Chāndogya Upaniṣadic pañcavidha-sāman and the saptavidhasāman along with the symbolic discussion of the five parts like hiṅkāra, prastāva, udgītha, pratihāra and nidhāna are directly related to the ‘Atithisatkāra-sūkta’ in the Atharvaveda.^[47]

The Chāndogya Upaniṣadic idea of ‘brahmapura’^[48] and the Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣadic concept, ‘navadvāre pure dehī haṃso lelāyate bahiḥ’^[49] are found in the Brahma-sūkta in the Atharvaveda.^[50] Again the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣadic concept, ‘arvāgbilaścamasa ūrdhvabudhna’^[51] is nothing but the concept of ‘tiryagbilaścamasaḥ urdhvabudhna’ of the Atharvaveda from the song of Kutsa.^[52] In this way, many philosophically famous ideas of the Upaniṣads having its root in the Atharvaveda. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣadic sūtra of antaryāmīn no doubt has its root in Atharvaveda in its, ‘yo vidyāt sūtram vitatam yasmin otāḥ prajā imāḥ’.^[53] The Taittirīya Upaniṣadic concept of ‘brahmakośa,’ i.e., ‘brahmaṇaḥ kośaḥ asi’ is a reflection of Atharvavedic ‘hiraṇmayakośa’. The Chāndogya Upaniṣadic view, ‘aśva iva romāṇi vidhūya pāpam..’^[54] is a concept of ‘aśva iva rajo dūdhuve’ of Atharvaveda.^[55]. The Praśnopaniṣadic idea, ‘vrātyastvaṃ prāṇaikaṛṣirattā viśvasya satpatiḥ’^[56] is an idea of Atharvavedic, ‘prāṇāya namo yasya sarvamidaṃ vaśe, yo bhūtaḥ sarvasyeśvaro yasmin sarvaṃ pratiṣṭhitam’.^[57]

The Śvetaśvatara Upaniṣadic concept of the ‘jālavān rudra’ and also the ‘tvaṃ strī tvaṃ pumānasi’ is an Atharvavedic concept of ‘ya eko jālavān ete.’^[58]

The Yajurveda and Sāmaveda have also influenced the Upaniṣads to a great extent. The Sāmaveda has a part to play in terms of the different meditations of the Upaniṣads.^[59] According to the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, Sāmaveda is the product of tapas and the Sāmaveda has been identified with the prāṇa in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad—‘prāṇaḥ sāmavedaḥ’.^[60] The Chāndogya Upaniṣad also says, ‘prāṇaḥ sāma’.^[61] Again, the Chāndogya Upaniṣad in its first four sections, discussing about sāman and nothing else.^[62] The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad in its first Adhyāya of third Brāhmaṇa, mantra no. 22 to 28, has discussed about the sāman when it states that ‘vāg vai sāma’.^[63]

The Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad has mentioned the view of Śuṣka Bhṛṅgāra, who regards the uktha (Sāmavedic-mantra) as the Brahman in its ‘ukthaṃ brahmeti ha smāha śuṣkabhṛṅgāraḥ.’^[64]

The Udgītha takes part a prominent place in the Upaniṣads. This udgītha has been associated with prāṇa and Āditya in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad.^[65] “In the Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad (I.5) the Bṛhatsāma, the Rathantarasāma, the Vairūpasāma and the Vairājasāma are said to form the four resting legs of the ‘āsandi’, the glorious seat of a ‘Brahmavit’, the knower of Brahman.^[66] The Taittirīya Upaniṣad and Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad have realised the necessity of the sāman and according to Praśna Upaniṣad, sāman has the capacity to uplift a person to the Brahmaloka.^[67] Therefore, sāman has the ability to ascend the people to a level of higher spiritual atmosphere.^[68] The Yajurveda has also a remarkable place in the Upaniṣadic discussion on meditation.^[69] The Chāndogya Upaniṣad considers it as the nāma of the Reality.^[70] The Chāndogya Upaniṣad says, ‘akṣīṇi puruṣa dṛśyate..tad yajuḥ.’^[71] The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad states, ‘prāṇo vai yajuḥ.’^[72] The Taittirīya Upaniṣad considers the yajus as the chief of the ‘manomaya-ātman’ when it states that, ‘tasya yajureva śiraḥ’^[73] The Maitrāyaṇyupaniṣad, in its saying ‘etadyadādityasya madhye yajurdīpyati’^[74] regards the yajus as the inner most part of the sun.

Upaniṣads have been influenced by the yajña to a great extent.

According to the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, that which clarifies the surroundings, in which men, animal or plant live, that is yajña—

‘yadeṣa yannidaṃ sarvaṃ punāti tasmādeṣa eva yajña.’^[75]

The same Upaniṣad regards yajña as the brahmacarya when it states that—

‘yadyajña ityācakṣate brahmacaryameva tad brahmacaryeṇa hyeva yo jñātā taṃ vindate..’^[76]

Again in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, we get the concept of ‘pāṅkta-yajña’ (the five fold aspect of yajña) in a very beautiful manner.^[77] Again. “In the famous Janakasabhā while replying to Hotā Aśvala Yājñavalkya is seen speaking of a threefold aspects of Yajña that goes on the Pṛthvī, in the external universe and in the Puruṣa, in the subtle and internal universe in man.”^[78]

The Agni have also a prominent role in the Upaniṣadic discussion. “The Upaniṣadic thinkers see the Agni outside and also the Agni in man and realise their identity.”^[79] The sparks (visphuliṅgāḥ) which are automatically spring from a blazing fire, become a source of the Upaniṣadic thinkers to explain the evolution of the universe.

That is why, in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, in the Maitrāyaṇyupaniṣad and also in the Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad we can see the concept—

‘yathā sudīptātpāvakādvisfuliṅgāḥ sahasraśaḥ prabhavante sarūpāḥ/
tathākṣarādvividhāḥ somya bhāvāḥ prajāyante tatra caivāpiyanti//’^[80]

Again,

‘yathā’gneḥ kṣudrāḥ visphuliṅgā vyuccarantyevamevāsmādātmanaḥ sarve prāṇāḥ sarve lokāḥ sarve devāḥ sarvāṇi bhūtāni vyuccaranti/’^[81]

From the point of view of Upaniṣadic poets and also the Brāmaṇic priests, the term suparṇā indicates so many things and the Upaniṣads have conserved this symbol and have used this symbolic expression for explaining some theosophical ideas.^[82] Again, the Upaniṣadic concept of ‘sāyujya, salokatā’^[83] have been already seen in the Kāṭhaka-Saṃhitā,^[84] the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇā^[85] and the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa.^[86] The Kaṭha Upaniṣadic view, ‘madhye vāmanamāsīnam’^[87] can be found in the Vājasaneyi-Saṃhita in its, ‘namo vamanāya’^[88] and Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, ‘vāmano ha viṣṇuḥ āsa’.^[89] Again the Kaṭha Upaniṣadic concept ‘tadevā śukraṃ tadbrahma’^[90] is also found in the Vājasaneyi-Saṃhitā.^[91] In this way many ideas of the Upaniṣads are taken from Brāhmaṇa literature also.

From the above discussions, possibly it can be said that Upaniṣads help us to comprehend the very tough ideas of Vedas in a very simple manner. From this point of view, Upaniṣads have a higher position in Vedic literature.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Rana, Swami., Eternal knowledge: The Wisdom of the Upnaishads,—http://yogainternational.com/article/view/eternal-knowledge-the-wisdom-of-the-upanishads

[2]:

Ṛgveda ,X.90

[3]:

Mainkar, T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , pp.3-4

[4]:

Chāndogya Upaniṣad , III.18.2

[5]:

Aitareya Upaniṣad , I. 1. 4

[6]:

Maitrāyaṇyupaniṣad , VI, 4., VI.6

[7]:

Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad, II.1. 4

[8]:

Ibid.,II.1.6

[9]:

Ibid.,II. 1.7

[10]:

Ibid.,II. 1.10

[11]:

Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad ,III.14-15

[12]:

Ṛgveda , I.164

[13]:

Chāndogya Upaniṣad ,VI.1.4

[14]:

Ṛgveda ,I.164.46

[15]:

Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad ,III.1.1

[16]:

Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad ,IV.6

[17]:

Ṛgveda , I.164.20

[18]:

Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad , IV.8

[19]:

Ṛgveda , I.164.39

[20]:

Mainkar, T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , pp.5-6

[21]:

Ibid,, p.6

[22]:

Ibid

[23]:

Ibid

[24]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad ,IV. 3.10

[25]:

Ṛgveda , IX.113.11

[26]:

Ibid., IX.113

[27]:

Mainkar,T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , p.7

[28]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad , II. 5.1

[29]:

Ṛgveda ,I.116.12., I.117.22

[30]:

Mainkar,T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , p.9

[31]:

Ibid

[32]:

Ṛgveda , X.125

[33]:

Ibid., X.71

[34]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad , I. 3.21

[35]:

Ibid., IV.1.2

[36]:

Ibid., II. 4.11

[37]:

Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad , III.2.8

[38]:

Mainkar, T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , p.10

[39]:

Praśna Upaniṣad ,II.6.,VI.6

[40]:

Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad ,III.8

[41]:

Chāndogya Upaniṣad ,VII.15.1

[42]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad ,II. 5.15

[43]:

Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad , II.2.6

[44]:

Mainkar, T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , p.10

[45]:

Chāndogya Upaniṣad , IV.10.3

[46]:

Mainkar, T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , p.10

[47]:

Ibid., pp. 10-11

[48]:

Chāndogya Upaniṣad ,VIII.1.5

[49]:

Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad ,III.18

[50]:

Atharvaveda , X.2.29-33

[51]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad ,II.2.3

[52]:

Atharvaveda ,X.8.9

[53]:

Ibid.,X. 2. 31-32

[54]:

Chāndogya Upaniṣad ,VIII.13.1

[55]:

Atharvaveda , XXII.1.57

[56]:

Praśna Upaniṣad ,II.11

[57]:

Atharvaveda ,XI. 4.15

[58]:

Mainkar, T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , p.12

[59]:

Ibid

[60]:

Chāndogya Upaniṣad ,III. 15. 7., Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad , I. 5. 5

[61]:

Chāndogya Upaniṣad , I. I.5

[62]:

Mainkar, T.G.., The Making of the Vedānta , p.13

[63]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad , I.3.22

[64]:

Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad ,II, 4

[65]:

Mainkar, T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , p.13

[66]:

Ibid

[67]:

Ibid

[68]:

Ibid

[69]:

Ibid

[70]:

Ibid

[71]:

Chāndogya Upaniṣad ,I.7.5

[72]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad ,V.13.2

[73]:

Taittirīya Upaniṣad ,II.3.I

[74]:

Maitrāyaṇyupaniṣad ,VI.35

[75]:

Chāndogya Upaniṣad ,IV.16.1

[76]:

Ibid.,VIII.5.1

[77]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad ,I.4.17

[78]:

Mainkar, T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , p.14

[79]:

Ibid., p.15

[80]:

Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad , II.1.1

[81]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad , II.1.20

[82]:

Mainkar, T.G., The Making of the Vedānta , p.16

[83]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad ,I.5.23

[84]:

Kāthaka Saṃhitā ,XXXVII.11

[85]:

Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa , III.9.20

[86]:

Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa ,XIV.4., III.34

[87]:

Katha Upaniṣad , II.2.3

[88]:

Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā , XII.30

[89]:

Śat.,B., I. 2., V.5

[90]:

Katha Upaniṣad , II.2.8

[91]:

Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā , XXII.1