Social Message of the Upanishads

by Sanchita Kundu | 2020 | 29,269 words

This study deals with the ethical principles of human society as gleaned from the Upanishads: a category of ancient Sanskrit philosophical texts dealing with spiritual insights and meditation. Their teachings deal with gaining control over one’s senses in order to find and attain the ultimate goal of life. The universal vision of these Upanishads p...

Chapter 2 - Vedic Corpus

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It is often said—

''cāturvarṇyaṃ trayo lokāścatvāraścāśramāḥ pṛthak /
bhūtaṃ bhavyaṃ bhaviṣyañca sarvaṃ vedāt prasidhyati //''^[1]

The four castes, the three worlds and four stages of human life are all known from the Veda.

Veda is the treasure house of all knowledge and all Śāstras. It is eternal asset of India. The word Veda is derived from the root vid. The root vid has got four meanings and four types of formation.

''vetti veda vida jñāne vinte vida vicāraṇe /
vidyate vida sattāyāṃ lābhe vindati vindate //''^[2]

Curiously enough all these four meanings of the root satisfy the meaning of Veda. Sāyaṇa says—

''vidanti jānanti vidyante bhavanti vinte vicārayati vindate labhante sarve manuṣyāḥ sattvavidyāṃ yairyeṣu tathā vidvāṃsaśca bhavanti te vedāḥ.''^[3]

By lakṣaṇā or indication Veda means the book which is identical with eternal knowledge.

Veda is the root of all Dharmas.

Dharma here does not mean any religion. Dharma is explained in the Mahābhārata as—

''dhāranād dharmamityāhuḥ dharmo dhārayate prajāḥ.''^[4]

The quality of mankind which brings in stability and unity in the society, which ensures peace in the society and leads people to the attainment of supreme goal is dharma.

These qualities are to be imbibed in order to remain honest.

''vidvadbhiḥ sevitaḥ sadbhirnityamadveṣarāgibhiḥ /
hṛdayenābhyanujñāto yo dharmastannibodhata //''^[5]

The Veda, tradition, righteous conduct of honest persons and practice and self-satisfaction of noble person are considered to be the source of all dharma.

''vedo' khiladharmamūlaṃ smṛtiśīle ca tadvidām /
ācāraścaivasādhūnāmātmanastuṣṭireva ca //''

It is believed that Veda is eternal. Sages have not composed Veda. They have only realized the truth. It has been said by the great commentator Sāyaṇa—

''Na hi vedasya kartāraḥ draṣtāraḥ sarva eva hi.''^[6]

Mahābhārata says—

''yugānte' ntarhitān Vedān setihāsān maharṣayaḥ /
lebhire tapasā pūrvamanujñātāḥ svayambhuvā //''^[7]

Veda has been revealed before sages. The derivative meaning of the word Ṛsi is one who visualizes mantra. The derivative meaning is ''ṛṣati paśyati iti''. The word Ṛṣi is formed by adding suffix kit to the root Ṛs. The rule is ''Igupadhāt kit''.

As we see things having colour and shape with eyes in the similar way, mystery of the world is revealed to all conscious creatures through Veda.

''pitṛdevamanuṣyaṇāṃ vedaścakṣuḥ sanātanam /
aśakyaṇcāprameyaṅca vedaśāstramiti sthitiḥ //''^[8]

There are four Vedas, Ṛk, Yajus, Sāma, Atharvan. Vedic literature has four stages—Mantra, Brāhmaṇa, Āraṇyaka and Upaniṣads. Mantras and Brāhmaṇas are related with sacrifice.

Subject matter of Āraṇyaka and Upaniṣads is supreme knowledge.

In Āpasmvayajñaparibhāsāsūtra it is said ''mantabrāhmaṇayorvedanāmadheyam''.^[9] Sāyaṇācārya has said in Ṛgvedabhāṣyabhūmikā ''mantrabrāhmaṇātmakaśavdarāśivedaḥ''. Thus it is shown entire Vedic literature has two stages mantra and Brāhmaṇa. Mantra and Brāhmaṇa are known as karmakāṇḍa while Āraṇyaka and Upaniṣads are called Jñānakāṇḍa. Since

Brāhmaṇa part is concerned with sacrificial rites hence some says Brāhmaṇa part of the Veda is karmakāṇḍa and Saṃhitā only is Jñānakaṇḍa. Some maintains Jñānakāṇḍa consists of Mantra, Āraṇyaka and Upaniṣad.

According to Winternitz there are three stages in the gradual development of Vedic literature. First stage is Mantra, second stage is Brāhmaṇa and the third stage is Āraṇyaka and Upaniṣads. Since both Āranyaka and Upaniṣads deal with supreme knowledge these two belong to single stage. i. e. the third stage.

The first stage of Vedic literature is Mantra. The word mantra is derived from the root man. Yāska says in Nirukta mantrāḥ mananāt. With mantras sacrificial performances are possible.

Through mantras eulogy of Gods are done. Mantras are applied in the sacrifice. Mantra is known as Saṃhitā which means collection of Mantrās.

Ṛk, Sāma and Yajus are three groups of mantra. Characteristics of these three groups of mantras are like this—

''teṣāmṛk yatrārthavaśena pādavyāvasthā. ''^[10]

''gītiṣu sāmākhyā.''^[11]

''śeṣe yajuḥ śabdaḥ''.^[12]

Saṃhitā is collection of mantras. Thus collection of mantras of Ṛk is Ṛk Saṃhitā whereas collection of Sāmamantras is Sāma Saṃhitā, collection of Yajurmantras is Yajuḥ Saṃhitā, collection of Atharvamantras is Atharvasaṃhitā. Thus there is a total of four Saṃhitās.

Vedavyāsa has divided Veda into these four types—

''avatīrṇo mahābhāgo vedaṃ cakre caturvidhaṃ.''^[13]

In the Saṃhitā, mantras are related to sacrificial rites. These mantras are of two types stutirūpā and āśirvādarūpā. By mantras known as stuti name, features, function of God and their relation with human being are known. In the āśirvādarūpāmantra we get prayer for happiness.

That Veda is not written by somebody and that it is apauruṣeya has been established through inference by Āpodeva in his Mīmāmsānyāyaprakāśaḥ—

''vedādhyāyanaṃ sarvaṃ gurvadhyayanapūrvakam /
vedādhyāyanasāmānyād yathādhunādhyanam //''^[14]

Disciple learns Veda from preceptor. That disciple also teaches Veda to his disciple. Hence it is known that Veda is always heard by this gradual process of preceptor and disciple. Thus the other name of Veda is Śruti. Thus it is established that the Veda is eternal in the form of continuous flow and it has not been created by somebody. Traditional view is that the Veda is revelation of truth.

Entire Vedic literature is believed to be the indivisible aggregate of knowledge. Yāska says—

''mantrāḥ mananāt''.^[15]

The root is mana jñāne which belongs to the group divādi. It may be mana avabodhane, the root belonging to tanādi group. The word mantra has been formed with the suffix ṣṭran. Scholars have acknowledged the meaning of mantra as shown in Nirukta. Over and above this meaning they maintain mantra is that with which sacrifices are performed and Gods are eulogized. They maintain mantras have supernormal power. Synonyms of mantra are Saṃhitā, Ṛk, speech expressed in metrics. Āpastamba says in Yajñaparibhāṣāsūtra ata' nye mantrāḥ which means mantras are other than Brāhmaṇa.

These mantras are of three types—

''tāstribidhā ṛcaḥ, parokṣakṛtāḥ, pratyakṣakṛtā ādhyātmikyaśca.''^[16]

Parokṣakṛtāmantra is that where verb is applied in third person. Where verb is applied in second person, the Ṛk is known as pratyakṣakṛtā. In Ādhyātmikī Ṛk the verb is applied in first person.

Veda is known as Trayee. But Atharva is also considered as fourth Veda.

In the Chāndogyopaniṣad Sanat Kumara says to Nārada—

''ṛgvedaṃ bhagabo' dhyemi yajurvedaṃ sāmavedamātharvaṇaṃ caturtham''.^[17]

In the Paspaśāhṇika of Mahabhāṣya, the great sage Patañjali says—

''catvāro vedāḥ sāṅgāḥ sarahasyāḥ''^[18]

In the Bṛhadāraṇyakaopaniṣad it has been said—

''are bāsya mahato bhūtasya niḥśvasitametad ṛgvedo yajurvedaḥ sāmavedo' tharvāṅgirasaḥ.''^[19]

Though Vedas are four, it is called trayee as the mantras are of three types.

Ancient vedic scholars maintain the term Trayee implies Ṛk, Yajuḥ and Sāma and excludes Atharvaveda. Mantras of Ṛk, Yajus and Sāma are directly involved in Śrauta and Gṛhya karma hence these constitute Trayee. Moreover when Śrauta sacrifice is performed sixteen priests are engaged there. The priest of Atharvaveda has nothing to do with the Śrauta Sacrifice and thus Atharvaveda is not to be included in Trayee, they maintain.

Winternitz holds seven tenth mantras of Atharvaveda actually belongs to Ṛgveda. Roth, Whitney maintains one fifth of the mantras of Atharvaveda belongs to Ṛgveda. These mantras are found in the first, eighth and tenth manḍala of the Ṛgveda.

Though mantras belonging to Atharvaveda are not related with main sacrifices but there are mantras which are essential for sacrifices performed for ensuring peace and prosperity. Hence importance of Atharvaveda is not to be ignored.

The priest concerned with Atharvaveda is known as Brahmā. He supervises various functions of other priests in the sacrifices. Hence Brahmā should have full knowledge of all the Vedas.

Ṛgveda says—

''brahmā tvo vadati jātavidyām.''^[20]

Kauṭilya, the author of Arthaśāstra did not include Atharvaveda within Trayee—

''sāmargyajurvedāstrayastrayee''.^[21]

In the Puruṣa Sūkta of Ṛgveda it is said—''tasmād yajñāt sarvahuta ṛcaḥ sāmānī jajñire / chandāṃsi jajñire tasmād yajustasmādajāyata //''^[22]

In the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa number of Veda has been determined as three—

''yamṛṣyastrayīvidāh viduḥ.''^[23]

Atharvaveda is not included here in the Trayee.

Method of Pronunciation of Vedic mantras also proves exclusion of Atharvaveda from Trayee. Āpastamba says in his Yajñaparibhāṣāsūtra—

''uccairṛgvedasāmavedābhyāṃ kriyate. ''^[24]

Mantra of Yajurveda is not to be pronounced loudly. It is said, upāṃśu yajurvedena.

Mantras of Atharvaveda are not applied in Vedic sacrifices hence methods of their pronunciation is not mentioned. That is why the scholars who laid importance on Vedic sacrifices refuse to include Atharvaveda within Trayee.

Thus it is to be admitted that there are four Vedas and mantras of the Vedasṣ are of three types.

Sacrifice is the chief Vedic rite. It has been said in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa—

''yajño vai Śreṣtatamaṃ karma.''^[25]

Mantras uttered during sacrificial rites are mostly from Yajurveda. Hence Sāyaṇa took up Yajurveda first for writing commentary.

''ādhvaryabasya yajñeṣu prādhānyād vyākṛtaḥ purā.''^[26]

Priests uttering mantras from Ṛgveda, Sāmaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda are known as Hotā, Udgātā, Adhvaryu and Brahmā respectively.

There are Brāhmaṇas related to each Vedas.

Priest gets instructions about sacrificial rites from these corresponding Brāhmanas and kalpasūtra.

The word Brāhmaṇa is synonymous with Brahma. There are various meaning of Brahma. One among which is mantra. In Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa it has been said Brahma vai mantraḥ. Brāhmaṇa is so named because it explains Vedic mantras. Another meaning of Brāhmaṇa is sacrifice. Explanation of application of Vedic mantras is the chief content of Brāhmaṇa. Brāhmaṇa gives the instruction as to when the sacrifice will commence, who is this person eligible to perform sacrifice, what are the materials required for performance of sacrifice etc.

For Ṛgveda there are two Brāhmaṇas, Aitareya Brāhmaṇa and Sāṃkhyāyana or Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa.

Tāṇḍya or pañcaviṃśa, Ṣaḍviṃśa, Chāndogya, Jaiminīya, Tavalkāra, Sāmavidhāna, Ārṣeyavaṃsa and Devatādhyāya are Brāhmaṇas for Sāmaveda. Tattirīya is the Brāhmaṇa of Kṛsṇa Yajurveda. For Śukla Yajurveda Brāhmaṇa is Śatapatha. Gopatha is the Brāhmaṇa of Atharvaveda.

Like Brahmaṇas, Kalpasūtras also speak about application of mantras in the sacrifice. Details of sacrificial rites are included in Śrautra Sūtra, Gṛhya Sūtra, Smārta Sūtra and Śūlva Sūtra which together are grouped under Kalpa Sūtra. Kalpa Sūtra appeared after the emergence of Brāhmaṇa.

Kalpa Sūtras are mainly of two types Śrauta Sūtra and Smārta Sūtra. Śrauta Sūtra presents rules of sacrifice mentioned in the Veda.

Smārta Sūtras are of two types Gṛhya Sūtra and Dharma Sūtra. Gṛhya Sūtra gives instructions about rites of marriage etc. Dharma Sūtra states duties of king and his subjects. It determines duties of four Varṇas and four Āśramas i.e. four stages of life.

Among Kalpa Sūtra fourth is Śulva Sūtra. This Sūtra states the means of preparing altar for sacrifice. Kalpa Sūtra related with Ṛgveda is Āśvalāyana and Śāṃkhyāyaṇa Sūtra.

Mantras of the Veda are important as they are applied in the sacrifices. Mantras are useless if they are not related with sacrifices.

Jaiminī says—

''āmnāyasya kriyārthatvādānarthakyamatadarthānām.''^[27]

There are some mantras which are not directly applied in the sacrifice. These are applied in Brahmayajña.

Third stage of the Veda is Āraṇyaka. The word Āraṇyaka is derived from araṇya. Araṇye uktam Āraṇyakam is the derivation.

Sāyaṇa says—

''araṇyādhyayanādetadāraṇyakamitīryate.''^[28]

Excepting Atharvaveda each Veda has Āraṇyaka. Aitareya and Kauṣītaki or Śāṃkhyāyana are the Āraṇyakas of Ṛgveda. Āraṇyaka of Sāmaveda is known as Chāndogya. Tattirīya Āraṇyaka is the Āraṇyaka of Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda. Āraṇyaka of Śukla yajurveda is called Bṛhadāraṇyaka.

Sacrificial rites along with philosophical thought constitute content of Āraṇyaka.

In the Veda each mantra is dedicated to particular deity. Accordingly Jaiminī mantras are like body of God. He says mantramayī devatā.

These Gods are mostly personification of nature. Macdenell says—''This is concerned with the worship of Gods that are largely personification of the power of nature''.^[29]

In this content Winternitz says—

''What is most important is that most mythologists today agree that by far the greatest majority of the Vedic Gods has proceeded from natural phenomena or natural beings''.^[30]

In the Ṛgveda we find evolution of thought as regards Gods. Gods are known as mantramayī. Since mantras are innumerable Gods are also many. Later on number of Gods comes to thirty three. There were eight Vasus, eleven Rudras, twelve Ādityas, Indra and Prajāpati. Thus number of Gods comes to thirty three. This number enhanced later on and the number comes to Thirty three crore.

Yāska accepted mainly three Gods depending on three places of Gods—

''agniḥ pṛthivīsthāno vāyurvendrovāntarikṣasthānaḥ sūryyo dyusthānaḥ.''^[31]

All other Gods are manifestation of the power of these three Gods, maintained Yāska.

Later on emerged the concept of one God. In this context, from the Ṛgveda we may mention here Asyavāmīya Sūkta of first maṇḍala, Viśvadeva Sūkta of third maṇḍala. In the tenth maṇḍala of Ṛgveda there are Hiraṇyagarbha Sūkta, Uttānapāda Sūkta, Devī Sūkta, Visvakarmā Sūkta and Puruṣa Sūkta. This concept of one God found in the Ṛk Saṃhitā is the seed of monism that flourished in the Upaniṣads. This one God is Self or Brahman and that is manifested in Āraṇyaka, Upaniṣads and later on in various schools of Indian Philosophy. Upaniṣad, the concluding part of the Veda is considered to be Śrutiprasthāna of Vedānta philosophy. Upaniṣad says, sarvaṃ khalvidaṃ brahma^[32]. Brahma or self is the only reality and world is mere appearance. ''neha nānāsti kiṅcana''^33.

This concept of one God again developed into the belief in many Gods in the age of Bhakti Vedānta schools which evolved after Śaṅkara the great commentator of Vedānta Darśana.