Part 5: Different Stages of the Life or Āśrama Vyavasthā

Āśrama vyavasthā is one of the leading foundations of ancient Indian society. It presents a systematic arrangement of what a man should do and when he should undertake prescribed functions and obligations. The word āśrama has been derived from the Sanskrit word śrama which means making an effort. P.V. Kane comments the four āśramas have been referred to, for the first time, in the Aitereya Brāhmaṇa.^[1]

The epic Mahābhārata describes four āśramas as—

“Four rung ladder that takes a man in the direction of Brahma who awards mokṣa.”^[2]

In the Harṣacarita, Bānabhaṭṭa states that in the 7^th century A.D., the society was governed by the laws of Manu.^[3] The law always helps in the development of the individual and of the society as well. According to the law of Dharmaśāstras, there are the following four āśramas in Indian social life:

1. Brahmacarya-āśrama
2. Gārhasthya-āśrama
3. Vānaprastha-āśrama
4. Sannyāsa-āśrama

1 Brahmacarya-āśrama (Students’ Life):

Brahmacaryāśrama implies the life of the students. The writer used the word varṇibhiḥ^[4] to indicate brahmacāriṇa. At this time, the students get formal education in the preceptor’s house. They also follow some rule and regulations, through which they acquire the proper manner. The writer Bāṇa mentions in his time, gurukula system (residential school) prevailed.^[5] In this āśrama, the students were getting and discussing different types of knowledge residing in the gurugṛha.^[6] Therefore, it is also known as gurukulāśrama. Bāṇabhaṭṭa mentions that in course of the study, the students performed certain services to their respective teachers and followed certain vows, such as-the students brought the green kuśa grass, leaves and fuel-wood.^[7] They should offer the boiled-rice and āmikṣā^[8] (i.e., a mixture of curds and boiled milk to all the Vaiśvadeva before taking dinner as oblation).^[9]

This āśrama begins with the initiation ceremony i.e., upanayana saṃskāra^[10] and ends with convocation ceremony i.e., samāvarttana.^[11] In this context, the writer mentions his father performed all his religious ceremonies in proper time according to the Dharmaśāstras.^[12]

According to the Saṅketa commentary—

samāvṛtto nispāditavṛttaḥ. snātaka ityarthaḥ.^[13]

The students had to recite the Vedic texts and different types of Śāstras in this āśrama.^[14] Bāṇa mentions that although Harṣa was a king, he also maintained the rules of brahmacarya.^[15] The writer has given the description of brahmacāriṇas. He mentions a special term baṭu^[16] to indicate brahmacāriṇ, who came to see the sacrifices and were crazy for money to get as alms.^[17] They always performed the sandhyāvandana and recited the mantras with clapping of their hands as instructed by their teachers in the evening time.^[18]

According to V. S. Apte, baṭu means—

“A religious student or brahmacāriṇ.”^[19]

The writer Kālidāsa used the term baṭu to indicate the boy of a brāhmaṇa who is very fickle in character.^[20] The writer mentions in this context that they had tawny hair.^[21] He also uses the term varṇi^[22] to imply the brahmacāriṇa.

According to Pāṇini—

varṇādabrahmacāriṇi.^[23]

Also we find the description of brahmacāriṇa who takes a special vow and puts on certain special dresses i.e., yogapaṭṭaka^[24] and puts the marks in their head i.e., puṇḍaka.^[25] The author describes Bhairavacārya as kumārabrahmacāriṇam^[26] i.e., who has observed the vow of celibacy all his life from boyhood.

P. V. Kane says—

“He was a naiṣṭhikabrahmacārī ‘a perpetual student’ and not upakurvāṇa.”^[27]

2 Gārhasthya-āśrama (Life of a House-holder):

It is the second and chief aśrama among the four āśramas.^[28] Manu also prescribes that the students entered into this gārhasthyāśrama i.e., the life of householder, after completing his study and getting approval from his teacher.^[29] Bāṇabhaṭṭa mentions that after completing his study and performing the convocation ceremony, he entered in to family life.^[30] It shows the great social responsibilities. Therefore the writer said to the king Harṣa-kāme bhujaṅgatā.^[31]

The Dharmaśāstras prescribes for the house-holder to perform the five daily sacrifices^[32] i.e., pañchamahāyajña viz.,

1. brahmayajña (i.e., muttering mantras or teaching the Vedas),
2. pitṛyajña (i.e., offering oblation or libations to the manes),
3. devayajña (i.e., burnt offerings to the deities),
4. nṛyajña or atithiyajña (i.e., hospitality to the incoming guests) and
5. bhūtayajña (i.e., offering foods to the animals).

Among these five yajñas, only some of them were more or less performed. At that time, it is seen the people had great responsibilities towards animals also. The writer describes that the householder had constructed the tanks on the courtyard and cakes for birds were thrown there.^[33] Description is found that the girls offered the grain nivāra (i.e., a kind of wild rice growing without cultivation) to the birds and the pets.^[34] It may be inferred that, at that time bhūtayajña was performed by the people. The householder must have respects towards the incoming guest. It is found in the Harṣacarita as to how people greeted the writer Bāṇa, when he returned to his native village.^[35] And the king Harṣa was given respect and greeted by the sage Divākaramitra.^[36] By the character of king Prabhākaravardhana, we find that he was not only an ideal king, but also an ideal father and ideal husband as well.^[37] It is also found that his wife Yaśomatī was dutiful towards him (husband), towards dependents, towards servants, towards his parents and the guests.^[38] Again, it is noticeable from the description of the brāhmaṇa Vātsāyana^[39] that the sages also lived the lives of householders in the Bāṇa’s time.

3 Vānaprastha-āśrama (Forest Life):

In this āśrama, vānaprasthin must be men of self-control. In the Harṣacarita, Bāṇa has given the description of vānaprasthin. Bāṇa had given the vivid description of his fore-father, Sārasvata, who followed the vows of brahmacarin and went to the forest.^[40] From his descriptions, it is found that the vānaprasthin were putting on muñja-mekhalā^[41] (i.e., griddles).

According to Saṅketa commentary—

mekhalā muñjatṛṇādiracitaṃ kaṭisūtram^[42]

And dressed in bark-garments^[43] and holding āṣāṭa^[44] (i.e., a staff of the palāśa wood in their hands). It is mentioned in Saṅketa commentary—

āṣāṭasaṅgo dandaḥ syātpalāśo bratacārinam.^[45]

It is also mentioned in the Manusaṃhitā that each of the three varṇas is to carry a staff of a particular tree.^[46] They also used the agina^[47] i.e., a deer skin used by the students for sitting. Sometimes, the brahmacārin held a water vessel in their hands.^[48] Bāṇa mentions the seat of a bratī or ascetics is known as vṛṣī^[49] (i.e., a seat made of kuśa grass for ascetics). These were their certain religious symbols. According to Manu-“a house holder, when he will find his hairs turned grey and skin of his body get wrinkled with lines, and see the son of his own son, he should be out for the forest.”^[50] Of course, Sārasvata may followed this vow.^[51]

The bānaprasthin lived in bank of the river, forests, mountains etc. We have found the pārāśarī Divākaramitra lived in the Vindhyāraṇya.^[52] And the sage Bhairavācārya lived in a Bilvavātikā.^[53] Goddess Sarasvatī lived in the bank of river Mandākinī.^[54] They could only take fruits, leaves etc. collected from the forest.^[55] Therefore, Divākaramitra said to Harṣa that nothing belonged him in that forest which he can say his own.^[56] And they didn’t kill the animals, they respected and cared all the animals, and people equally. It is seen in the Divākaramitra’s character.^[57] The author mentions the Buddhist monks or bhikṣu were known as pārāśarī. According to Saṅketa commentary-pārāśarī bhikṣuḥ.^[58] They didn’t accept the worldly life and became too pessimistic.^[59]

The great epic Mahābhārata prescribes that the bānaprasthin should always avoid killing or injuring the animals in the world.^[60] It is found in the description of Buddhist monks that they were carrying a peacock’s feathers to put the insects etc. aside from their roads.^[61]

4 Sannyāsa-āśrama (Ascetic Life or Renunciation):

The last āśrama is known as sannyāsa. It found in the Manusaṃhitā^[62] that when a person becomes incapacitate by old age, then living in the forest, he shall pass the third period of his life; and forswearing company, he shall dedicate the fourth period of his life to the practice of asceticism. The writer Bāṇabhaṭṭa mentions the various types of ascetics and their duties also in his Harṣacarita. He mentions different names of ascetics such as-pārāśarin.^[63] It founds in the Sanskrit-English Dictionary—it means the religious mendicant or brāhmaṇa, who have passed through three stages of student, house-holder and ascetic, leads a vagrant life and subsists upon alms.^[64] And bhikṣu,^[65] (i.e., a beggar or the Buddhist mendicant, who has entered the 4^th order and subsists wholly upon the alms).^[66] khapaṇaka^[67] i.e., is known as jainabhikṣu,^[68] maskariṇa,^[69] paribrājaka,^[70] muni,^[71] and the word bhadanta^[72] is also used to imply ascetics. The Amarakoṣa also accepts all these above mentioned as ascetics.^[73] Bāṇa also mentions the female ascetics known as kātyāyanikā^[74] (i.e., who wore the clothes made with red-robes).

According to the Saṅketa commentary—

vadanti kātyāyanikām dhṛtakāṣāyavāsasam.^[75]

The male ascetics were encircling their body with yogapaṭṭika,^[76] kāṣāya,^[77] cīvara^[78] karpaṭa^[79] etc. Manu also prescribes that they carry bowl of alms, lives under a tree without companion, wears rags, kaupīna, and a kanthā, and treats friends and foes equally.^[80] Such a person attains salvation easily.^[81] The sage Divākaramitra was also living by alms.^[82] Bāṇa mentions that the ascetics bathed in numerous rivers, which fall in to the ocean^[83] and they visited various holy or sacred places.^[84] Although, Dharmaśāstra^[85] prescribes that only those, who adopted and overcome the three āśramas (systematically) were attributed the supreme status. As the brāhmaṇas were successful in doing that, they were superior to others. But it is found that without entering the gārhasthāśrama, the brāhmaṇa Sārasvata entered in to the vānaprasthāśrama.^[86] According to the Manusaṃhitā, the brāhmaṇa, who entered the first three āśramas and having thoroughly learnt the ten attributes of virtues, practiced them in life, and attained the most escalated status.^[87] It reveals that in the 7^th century, the ascetics practiced the japa, yama, niyama etc. Bāṇa mentions pārāśarī Divākaramitra followed that vows.^[88] According to the Yogasūtra–the yama is the first aṅgas of the yoga^[89] and the niyama is the second aṅgas of the yoga.^[90] From the description of different types of ascetics and mendicants, who were came to meet the emperor Harṣavardhana in his assembly,^[91] it is known that the ascetics and mendicants had largely increased in the 7^th century A.D. and the kings also welcomed the visit of such people.

From the above discussions, it may be inferred that there were four castes based on criterion of birth and from the viewpoint of the social status. The brāhmaṇa acquired the superior position and other three castes performed their duties in a growing social order. It is also known that āśrama system was followed according to the laws of Dharmaśāstrsas. At last, it may infer that belonging to all these four orders, should be attentively pursued the ten-attributed virtue.^[92]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

“Perhaves the earliest reference to the four Āśramas, though somewhat obscure, occurs in the Ait. Br.33.11.”-History of Dharmaśāstra Vol.II. part I; p.420

[2]:

Mahābhārata, Śāntiparvan. Ch.191

[3]:

…manāmiva kartari varṇāśramavyavasthānām…, Harṣacarita,II.p.36

[4]:

Ibid., p.128

[5]:

gurukulmiti vidyārthibhiḥ, Ibid., I.p.44

[6]:

niravadyavidyāvidyotitāni ca gurukulāni sevamānaḥ, Ibid., I.p.19

[7]:

śuciśiṣyaśatānīyamānaharitakuśapūlīpalāśasamindhi, Ibid.,II.p.21

[8]:

āmikṣīyakṣīrakṣāriṇīnā….., Ibid.

[9]:

vaiśvadevapiṇḍa…., Ibid.

[10]:

Manusaṃhitā,II.108

[11]:

Ibid., III.4

[12]:

[a] kṛtopanayanādikriyākalāpasya samāvṛttasya……pitāpi śrutismṛtivihitaṃ kṛtvā…, Harṣacarita,I.p.19 [b] yathākālamupanayanādayaḥ kṛtāḥ saṃskārāḥ, Ibid., II.p.36

[13]:

Ibid., p.73

[14]:

samyakapaṭhitaḥ sāṅgo vedaḥ. śrutāni yathāśakti śāstrāṇi, Ibid., II.p.36

[15]:

gṛhītabrahmacaryamāliṅgitaṃ…, Ibid., II.p.32

[16]:

yathākālamadhīyate va baṭavaḥ, Ibid., III.p.38

[17]:

kratulobhāgatairbaṭubhiradhyāsyamānāni, Ibid., II.p.21

[18]:

…..tāladhvanidhāvamāna alasavṛddhaśrotiyānumatena …saṃdhyāṃ samavadhārayati vaṭharaviṭabaṭusamāje, Ibid., III.p.41

[19]:

Apte, V. S., The student’s Sanskrit Eng. Dictionary,p.488

[20]:

capalo’yam baṭuḥ, Abhijñānam Sākuntalam, II.p.119

[21]:

kapilaśikhājālajaṭilaiḥ…, Harṣacarita,II.p.21

[22]:

Ibid., II.p.28

[23]:

Aṣṭādhyāyī,5.2.134

[24]:

Harṣacarita,p.167

[25]:

Ibid.,I.p.3

[26]:

Ibid., III.p.47

[27]:

Ibid., p.346

[28]:

…sarvāśramāṇāṃ mulamudāharanti…., Mahābharata,śāntipavan , 191.10

[29]:

Manusaṃhitā,III.4

[30]:

[a] kṛtopanayanādikriyākalāpasya samāvṛttasya ……, Harṣacarita,I.p.19 [b] dāraparigrahādabhyagāriko’smi, Ibid., II.p.37

[31]:

Ibid.

[32]:

Ibid., III.70

[33]:

saṃnniveśairaṅganāgastistambatalaviracitakṣiprapakṣipūpikāvāpikai…, Ibid., VII.p.124

[34]:

bālikāvikīryamāṇanīvārabalīni, Ibid., II.p.21

[35]:

tatra ca ….snehasadbhāvai ……sasaṃstavaprakaṭitajñāteyairāpatairutasavadivasa ivābhinanditābhigamano bālamitramaṇḍalasya…, Ibid., I.p.20

[36]:

…snigdhamadhurayā vācā …..rājānamanvagrahītabhyanandacca…svāgatagirā gurumivābhyāgataṃ bahu manyamānaḥ svenāsanenanimantrayāṃcakre, Ibid., VII.p.129

[37]:

Ibid., IV.p.60-69

[38]:

tasya ca ….cakravākamayīva patipemṇi,…vasudhārāmayīva prasādeṣu,…vṛṣṭimayīva bhṛtyeṣu,…vetasamayīva guruṣu,…yaśomatī nāma mahādevī….abhūt, Ibid., IV.p.57-58

[39]:

….vātsyāyanā nāma gṛhamunayaḥ, Ibid., I.p.18

[40]:

ātmanāpyāṣāḍī, kṛṣṇājinī, valkalī, akṣavalayī, mekhalī, jaṭī ca bhūtvā tapasyato janayitureva jagāmāntikam, Ibid.

[41]:

Ibid.

[42]:

Ibid., p.68

[43]:

valkalī… ca bhūtvā…, Ibid., I.p.18

[44]:

Ibid.

[45]:

Ibid., p.68

[46]:

Manusaṃhitā,II.45

[47]:

kṛṣṇājinī, Harṣacarita, I.p.18

[48]:

…kṛtakamaṇḍalu…, Ibid., I.p.4

[49]:

Ibid., I.p.4

[50]:

Manusaṃhitā,VI.2

[51]:

atha sārasvato …jaṭī ca bhutvā tapasyato janayitureva jagāmāntikam, Harṣacarita,I.p.18

[52]:

atha krameṇa gacchata eva…..tanayā iva āṭavījātā vindhyasya …..āvedyamānam……madhyame vayasi….divākaramitramadrākṣīt, Ibid., VIII.127-128

[53]:

…jīrṇamātṛgṛhasyottareṇa, bilvavātikā madhyāste, Ibid., III.46

[54]:

[a] …mandākinīdyuterasya mahānadasyopakaṇṭhabhūmayaḥ..., Ibid., I.p.8
[b]…. pārāśarī divākaramitranāmā girinadīmāśritya prativasati, Ibid., VIII.p.126

[55]:

phalamūlenāmṛtarasamapya…….svādimnā…śoṇavāriṇā śarīrasthitimakarot, Ibid., I.p.8

[56]:

….kandamūlaphalasya girisaridambhaso vā ke vayam, Ibid., VIII.p.130

[57]:

[a]…sārikābhirapi dharmadeśanāṃ darśayantī…, Ibid., VIII.p.128
[b] saugataśīlaśītalasvabhāvaiḥ śardūlairapyamāṃsāśibhirupāsyamānam……., Ibid.
[c] āsanopāntopaviṣṭa…….kesariśāvakatayā…, Ibid.
[d] vāmakaratalaniviṣṭena nivāramaśnatā pārāvatapotena…, Ibid.

[58]:

Ibid., I.p.75

[59]:

[a] saugatasyevārthaśūṇya……vairāgyasya kāṣāyāṇyabhilaṣataḥ, Ibid., I.p.120
[b] bauddhabuddhimiva nirālambamanām, Kādambarī,p.131
[c] jinasyevārthavādaśūṇyāni darśanāni, Harṣacarita,II.p. 35

[60]:

Mahābhārata, 46.26-29

[61]:

……..śikhipitcchālāñchano nagnāṭakaḥ, Harṣacarita,V.p.75

[62]:

Manusaṃhitā,VI.33

[63]:

Harṣacarita,p.19, 28

[64]:

Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.445

[65]:

Ibid., I.p.19

[66]:

The Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.531

[67]:

Harṣacarita,I.p.19

[68]:

Ibid., Chātratoṣiṇī commentary, p.73

[69]:

Ibid., p.19, 46

[70]:

Ibid., p.45

[71]:

Ibid., p.18

[72]:

Ibid., p.130

[73]:

bhikṣuparibrāṭakarmandī pārāśaryapi maskarī, Amarakoṣa,II.7.41

[74]:

Harṣacarita,I.p.19

[75]:

Ibid., p.74

[76]:

Ibid., III,p.47

[77]:

Ibid., VIII.p.126

[78]:

Manusaṃhitā,VI.44

[79]:

Harṣacarita,III.p.45

[80]:

Manusaṃhitā,VI.44

[81]:

Harṣacarita,VIII.p.126

[82]:

piṇḍapātī…… pārāśarī divākaramitra ….prativasati, Ibid., VIII.p.126

[83]:

jalanidhimivānekanadanadīsahasraprakṣālitaśarīram, Ibid., III.p.47

[84]:

..bahupuṇyatīrthasthānaśucim, Ibid.

[85]:

Manusaṃhitā,VI.88

[86]:

atha sārasvato…..yauvanārambha eva….jaṭī ca bhūtvā….jagāmāntikam, Harṣacarita,I.p.18

[87]:

Manusaṃhitā,VI.92-93

[88]:

…janma japasya, janma yamasya, nemiṃ niyamasya…, Harṣacarita,VIII.p.128

[89]:

Yājñavalkyasmṛti,II.30

[90]:

Ibid., II.32

[91]:

ekāntopaviṣṭaiśca jainairārhataiḥ pāśupataiḥ pārāśaribhirvarṇibhiśca….kṛtaparigrahaṃ rājadvāramagamat, Harṣacarita,II.p.28

[92]:

Manusaṃhitā,VI.91-92