Amaravati Art in the Context of Andhra Archaeology
by Sreyashi Ray chowdhuri | 2018 | 90,477 words
This page relates ‘Scope, Sources and Methodology’ of the study on Amaravati Art in the Context of Andhra Archaeology, including museum exhibitions of the major archeological antiquities. These pages show how the Buddhist establishment of Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) survived from 4th century BCE to 14th century CE. It includes references and translations of episodes of Buddha’s life drawn from the Avadanas and Jatakas which are illustrated in Amaravati art.
Chapter 1 - Scope, Sources and Methodology
Ancient Andhra Pradesh has unveiled a plethora of Buddhist establishments in the centuries immediately preceding and following the Christian era. These Buddhist establishments reveal a phenomenal growth in art activity with a definite regional stylistic affiliation. The Kṛṣṇā valley, that is, coastal Andhra became the hub of this culture and the various cognate sites like Bhaṭṭiprolu, Amarāvatī, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, Goli, Guḍivāḍa, Ghaṇṭaśālā, Garikapāḍu, Jaggayyapeṭa,
Ramireddipalli, Chezārla, Alluru, Bezwāḍa, Peḍḍamadur, Chiṇṇaganjam, Kanuparṭi etc have yielded precious relics of the Buddhist art. Among the early centres, Amarāvatī, ancient Dhānyakaṭaka, took the leading role in this creative endeavour and the Mahācaitya of Amarāvatī stood as one of the finest monument of Buddhism in South India.
Amarāvatī art vis-à-vis Indian art is indeed known to scholars. But no comprehensive study of Amarāvatī art in the context of other Andhra archaeological sites have been done. In this endeavour we have attempted to address the issue from the perspective of Amarāvatī’s longevity and the continued survival in later periods. In this regard we have tried to examine the survival strategy of the Buddhist monument of Amarāvatī and emphasized on its enduring impact on art traditions of India, Sri Lanka and South East Asia. Here it may be pointed out that the Buddhist establishment of Amarāvatī survived from 4th century B.C.E to 14th century C.E. This long survival is unique to Amarāvatī and none of the contemporaneous sites of ancient Andhradeśa enjoyed such a long period of survival. The present thesis basically tries to investigate the above dimensions.
In order to skillfully pursue our objective and enrich our database we have taken into account the historiography pertaining to our work.
In this regard it may be pointed out that the historiography devoted to Amarāvatī is vast. The archaeological and sculptural uniqueness of Amarāvatī art is noticed frequently and studied in specialized and general works. Among some earlier works mention may be made of James Fergusson’s Tree and Serpent worship[1], Robert Sewell’s Report on the Amaravati Tope[2], J. Burgess’s Notes on Amarāvatī Stupa[3], Jas Burgess’s the Buddhist stupas at Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta[4] and J.A.C Boswell’s article in The Indian Antiquary[5]. Here it should be pointed out that Fergusson’s work was possibly the first attempt to write the history of the monument. In this book a detailed photographic and textual account of the Amarāvatī Stūpa was made. He identified one of the significant aspects of Amarāvatī art revealed in the strong substratum of tree and serpent worship. Same feature was also visible at Sāñchī. Sewell, Burgess, and Boswell’s work mainly focussed on the early stages of the discovery of the monument. Amita Ray’s work Life and Art of Early Andhradesa[6] tried to investigate the socio-economic and religious background of the period which had an impact on the motifs of Amarāvatī art. Anamika Roy’s book Amarāvatī stūpa[7] looked into the architectural, sculptural and epigraphical evidences in order to form a comprehensive history of the monument.
Among other works which throw light on the various facets of the Andhra culture mention may be made of Buddhist Remains in India by A.C. Sen[8], Sātāvahana Art by M.K Dhavalikar[9], Art of South Indian-Andhra Pradesh by B. Rajendra Prasad[10], Andhra Sculptures by O.C Gangoly[11] Amaravati by H. Sarkar and S.P Nainar[12], Buddhist Monuments by Debala Mitra[13], Buddhist Remains In South India and Early Andhra History, 225 AD TO 610 AD by K.S Subramanian[14], History of Deccan Fine Arts, Architecture, Sculpture and Painting by G.Yazdani[15], Traditions of Indian Art Painting and Architecture by Stella Kramrisch[16], A Survey of Indian Sculpture by S.K. Saraswati[17] and The Buddhist architecture in Andhra by D. Jithendra Das[18]. Discourse in early Buddhist Art-Visual Narratives of India by Vidya Dehejia[19] is invaluable for her precise study of the different modes of narratives found in the reliefs of Amarāvatī Art. Buddhist Sculptural Art of Lower Krishna valley by Vinay Kumar Rao[20] confirms coastal Andhra as the cultural hub of early Andhradeśa. From the detailed documentation of epigraphical, sculptural and architectural artefacts of the Amarāvatī art in the book entitled Sculptural Art of Amarāvatī by Jyoti Rohilla Rana[21] one can study the characteristics of Amarāvatī repertoire along with the epigraphical records. A chapter devoted to Amarāvatī’s linkages to the Sri Lankan art tradition is significant to our present work.
Texts representing museums exhibitions or publications of the major archeological antiquities contain the heart and matter of the Amarāvatī Art. In this regard mention may be made of Sculptures from Amaravati in the British Museum by Doughlas Barrette[22], Amaravati Sculptures in the Madras Government Museum by C. Sivaramamurti[23], Amaravati, Buddhist Sculpture from the Great Stupa by Robert Knox[24], Sculptures and Antiquities in the Archaeological Museum, Amarāvatī by S.S Gupta[25], Album-National Museum Arts Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris[26] and Compilation on Amaravati sculptures and Conservation and Reorganisation of the Amaravati of Gallery in the Government Museum, Chennai, edited by Dr. R. Kannan[27] C. Sivaramamurti’s magnum opus contains extensive survey of sculptures in the Madras Museum dividing it into four phases and adding a chapter on inscriptions. Barrette approached the subject stylistically. Knox concentrated on the Amarāvatī collections in the British Museum describing the catalogue vividly. The four appendixes at the end enrich us. The author’s effort to delineate the theme, the stylistic characteristics and the probable date of the iconoplastic representations help us in understanding the stylistic uniqueness, the religious peculiarity and the chronological continuity of the Amarāvatī Art. S.S Gupta’s book attempts at making a comprehensive compilation of archaeological antiquities recovered from Amarāvatī and its surroundings as exhibited in the Archaeological Museum, Amarāvatī. The antiquities span from the 3rd B.C.E and 12th C. E, which gives us the idea of the nature of antiquities, its stylistic developments through the ages and its religious patterns. R Kannan’s book not only documented reorganization of Amarāvatī’s artefacts in the Madras Government Museum along with its accession number, measurement and explanation but also gives account of the artefacts preserved in the British Museum. The method of conservation followed in the museum for preserving the antiquities of the Amarāvatī art is an interesting facet of this book.
In order to assess the continuity of Amarāvatī in respect to the contemporary sites it is required to look into the history of the monument. It is linked to the rise and fall of the dynasties of the region along with the growth and decline of Buddhism. In this respect, we should take notice of the political developments. Our idea of the political developments are furnished by works like A history of South India from Prehistoric Times to the fall of Vijayanagar by K.A Nilakanta Shastri[28], Early History of the Andhra by K.Gopalachari[29], Successors of the Satavahanas in Eastern Deccan by D.C Sircar[30], Historical sketches of Ancient Dekhan by K.V Subrahmanya Aiyer[31] and South Indian Portraits by T.G Aravamuthan[32]. Aravamuthan’s book hints at Gautamīputra Sātakarṇi’s involvement in the Amarāvatī region. However, this cannot be accepted with certainty. P.R.K Prasad article ‘Pre-Sātavāhana Phase at Amarāvatī Dharaṇikoṭa[33] ’ throws light on pre-Sātavāhana political developments in Amarāvatī.
Since the focus of the Amarāvatī Art is embedded in the Buddhist establishments, hence one must take a note of the religious activities of early Deccan. In this connection special reference may be made of Sukumar Dutt’s Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India[34], Joe Cumming’s, Buddhist Stupas in Asia[35], G.K.Lama’s Buddhist Cave Temples of Ancient India[36] and H. Sarkar’s Studies in Early Buddhist Architecture of India[37]. The religious conception manifested in the architecture and sculpture of the region can be understood from the works like Stylistics of Buddhist Art in India by Mireille Benisti[38], Wheel and its Tracks by Shashi Sekhar[39], Jatakas in South Indian Art by B. Subrahmanyam[40], The Influence of Jatakas on Art and Literature by D.C Ahir[41], Life of Buddha in Indian Sculpture by Ratan Parimoo[42], Buddhist Centres in Ancient India by Binayendranath Chaudhuri[43], Yakṣas by Ananda K Coomaraswamy[44], Buddhist Art in India by Albert Grunwedel[45], The Art of Ancient India, Buddhist, Hindu, Jain by Susan L.Hungtinton[46] and The Art and Architecture of India Buddhist, Hindu, Jain by Benjamin Rowland[47]. The symbolism associated with Buddhism is represented in art and Amarāvatī art is no exception to this general pattern. In this respect mention may be of Elements of Buddhist Iconography by Ananda K
Coomaraswamy[48], Werner Karel edited Symbols in Art and Religion, the Indian and the Comparative Perspective[49] and Studies in Indian Art by Vasudeva S. Agrawala[50]. Symbolism associated with lotus and its depiction in Indian Art is well documented in Santona Basu’s Lotus Symbol in Indian Literature and Art[51]. Since lotus is profusely depicted in the Art of Amarāvatī such a monograph is helpful in our study.
In order to understand and identify episodes associated with Buddha’s life, Avadānas and Jātakas illustrated in Amarāvatī art is essential to our work. In this regard mention may be made of E.H Brewster’s The Life of Gotama, The Buddha[52], John S. Strong’s The Buddha a short biography[53], Eugene Watson Burlingame’s Buddhist Parables[54] and Jayanti Chattopadhyay’s Bodhisattva Avadāna Kalpalatā.[55]
The importance of Amarāvatī Art is apparent from numerous widely known sources (both literary and archaeological). In the present thesis all relevant sources have been taken into account. The literary sources include Chinese source (Hiuen Tsang’s Travels[56]) Greek source (Ptolemy’s Geography[57] , Periplus of Erythraen Sea[58]), Taranatha’s accounts[59] and indigenous literary works (Jātakas[60] , Lalitavistara[61] , Nidānakathā[62] , Buddhacharita[63], Mahāvagga[64], Mahāvastu[65], and Mahāparinibbana suttanta[66]). Coins and inscriptions have also provided significant data. In this respect mention may be made of several volumes of Epigraphia Indica[67], Studies in Indian Epigraphy (vol1)[68], Studies in early Budhist Monuments and Brāhmī inscriptions of Āndhradeśa by I.K Sarma[69], Epigrahpia Zeylanicabeing Lithic and other inscriptions of Ceylon edited by S.Paranavitana and H.W Codrington[70] and I.K Sarma’s article ‘Early sculptures and epigraphs from South East Asia’ edited by Fredrick Asher and G.S Gai in Indian Epigraphy and its bearing on the history of art[71]. P.R.K. Prasad’s A Hoard of Miniature Copper Coins from Amarāvatī’ in The Age of the Satavahanas by Ajay Mitra Shastri[72] and Coins of South India by Sir Walter Elliot[73] have furnished information regarding the uniqueness of the Andhra coins.
The archaeological discoveries in Amarāvatī and its surroundings is significant to our study. In this regard mention may be made of the Annual Reports of Archaeological Survey of India[74] , Indian Archaeology A Review[75] Memoirs of Archaeological Survey of India[76] , Andhra Pradesh Archaeology-A Review[77] and Studies in Indian Archaeology[78] . Oxford companion to Indian Archaeology by Dilip K Chakrabarti[79] and Perspectives of Archaeology, Art and Culture in early in Andhradesa by Ramamohan K. Rao[80]. Several articles published in Purātattva[81] , Marg[82] , South Asian studies[83] , Artibus Asiae[84] , Indian Historical Quarterly[85] ,Journal of Andhra History and Culture[86] and the Journal of Asiatic society of Bengal[87] contain relevant information on Andhra art, archaeology and its linkages with South and South -East Asia. The chapter ‘Culture and Civilization the beginnings’ in Social and Economic History of early Deccan: Some Interpretations edited by Aloka Parasher Sen[88] throws light on the origins of civilization in early Deccan and the variations of cultural expansions in the pre-historic times. N. Chandramouli’s book Rock Art of Andhra Pradesh-A new synthesis[89] have helped us to understand the habitational pattern and archaeological vestiges ranging from pre-historic and historical periods of Deccan. The article ‘Dharani, the Protective Spell and Dharani Pillar’, by K. Sankarnarayan[90] enriches our knowledge on the nomenclature of Amaravati and also inform us about the reason and purpose of its naming. It also gives insight of the Vajrayana phase prevalent in Dhānyakaṭaka. The article ‘Pattern of Patronage and early Buddhist Art of Amaravati’ by Sima Roy Chowdhury in Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia edited by Goutam Sengupta and Sharmi Chakraborty[91] focuses on the collective patronage in Amaravati which in turn led to the growth, development and survival of the site. The survival of the monument can also be attributed to the presence of civic amenities present in the urban centre of Amaravati. In this regard a portion dealing with parameters of urban setup in the book entitled Indus to Ganges by G.K.Lama is helpful in our present work[92]. The chapter ‘Documentation & Destruction: the Case Study of Amaravati’ written by Upinder Singh in Archaeology and History in early South Asia edited by Himanshu Prabha Ray and Carla M. Sinopoli[93] gives chronological study of the discovery and documentation of the monument. S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty in the book Andhra Culture[94] have attempted to study the early historical remains of the Andhra region dated between 400 B.C.E and 300 C.E in order to analyse the various aspects of Andhra Culture namely crafts, technologies, structural activities, settlement patterns etc. This study is essential for interpreting the socio-cultural personality of early Andhradeśa of which Amarāvatī Culture figured prominently.
The problem of Amarāvatī’s survival strategy in the later periods can be solved by understanding the strategic importance of the site. A series of imposing research works like The Ancient Routes of Deccan and Southern Peninsula by Dilip K. Chakrabarti[95], Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India by Moti Chandra[96], Trade in early India by Ranabir Chakrabarti[97], The Archaeology of Indian trade routes upto C.200 BC by Nayanjot Lahiri[98], Trade, Ideology and urbanization South India 300 BC to A.D 1300 by R. Champakalakshmi[99] throw light on the economic significance of the place. Dhānyakaṭaka, ‘the corn town’, was an agriculturally fertile region and had access to the trade routes. The prosperous trade routes of Western Deccan and Central India converged on the East coast trading station where Dhānyakaṭaka played an important role. Moreover, the Roman trading relation with Andhra also suggests the strategic importance of the region. Sculptural activities in the Indian coastlands, its transmissions and linkages emphasized by Sunil Gupta in Early sculptural Art in the Indian coastlands-A study in cultural transmission and syncretism (300 BCE-CE 500)[100] is very important in our study.
Amarāvatī art occupies a special place in the history of art. It not only added several interesting facets but also a general evolution of an art style visible in Amarāvatī and its neighbouring sites. Certain works like South Indian Buddhist antiquities by Alexr Rea[101], Nāgārjunakoṇḍa a cultural study by K. Krishna Murthy[102], Nagarjunakonda by H. Sarkar and B.N Misra[103], Buddhist Art of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa by K. Rama[104], Buddhist Art of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa by Elizabeth Rosen Stone[105] and Monograph on an early Buddhist stupa at Kesanapally by M. Waheed Khan[106] and Buddhist Sculptures from a Stupa near Goli village, Guntur District by T.N. Ramachandran[107] has helped us in understanding the stylistic developments in the neighbouring sites of Amarāvatī. Among the above mentioned books Krishna Murthy’s work catalogues and analyzes the artefacts of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa on the basis of modes of dress, jewellery, furniture etc. A guide book to Nāgārjunakoṇḍa co-authored by H. Sarkar and B.N Mishra have provided organizational framework of the sites and layout of the valley. A. Rea’s work can be considered as an earlier account of his excavations at Bhaṭṭiprolu, Guḍivāḍa and Ghaṇṭaśālā which added to our knowledge of the excavated antiquities and their stylistic similarities with that of the art of Amarāvatī. Elizabeth Rosen Stone’s research is of immeasurable importance as it attempts to construct the chronological and stylistic developments of art centres of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, Goli and Gummadidurru and makes a comparative estimate between Amarāvatī art and those of Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, Goli and Gummadidurru. An interesting aspect of her work is her effort to trace Nāgārjunakoṇḍa’s links with the Begram ivories. The article ‘Kanganhalli (Sannati) and the Amaravati School, Some Observations by Elizabeth Rosen Stone in Art, Icon and Architecture enriches our study and helps us in locating the connectivity between Kanganhalli and Amarāvatī art[108]. An article by Professor Manjushree Rao in the book South Indian Archaeology edited by G. Kamalakar enriches our data base regarding the connectivity in the architectural pattern seen in Bhārhut, Sāñchī and Amarāvatī[109]. In the attempt to study the feminine pliable figures with flexions frequently represented in the Amarāvatī art, the book by Kapila Vatsayan entitled Classical Indian Dance in Literature and Arts[110] have greatly helped us in understanding the postures and gestures of the female figures in the Amarāvatī atelier.
A Ramachandran’a book The Cultural history of Lower Kṛṣṇa valley. Its contacts with South East Asia[111] is exhaustively used for the interactive study of Amarāvatī vis-a-vis Indian and South East Asian Art. This work established lower Kṛṣṇā valley as the cultural hub of early Andhra and emphasized the cultural interaction between Andhra and the countries of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. This work is utilized for reconstructing the survival of Amarāvatī’s culture in later periods of Indian and South East Asian art.
Amarāvatī’s pan Asian connections are studied in works like Buddhist art in India, Ceylon, Java by J. Ph Vogel[112], Buddhist art in South East Asia, The Indian influence on art of Thailand by Reginald Le May[113], Buddhist Monuments of China and South East Asia by I.K Sarma[114], Sinhalayo by S. Paranavitana[115], The Archaeology of the Mons of Dvaravati by Pierre Dupont116, Cultural relations between India and South East Asia by H.B Sarkar[116], Buddhist Art of Pagan by Vinay Kumar Rao[117] and Theravāda Buddhist Devotionalism, Ceylon, Burma and Thailand by V.V.S.Saibaba[118]. These studies are helpful for evaluating the syncretistic trend in South East Asian art and identifying Amarāvatī’s stylistic influences on the artefacts of South East Asia. The pan Asian linkages of the Amarāvatī culture can be studied with a new perspective in works like Buddhist iconography in Thiland–A South East Asian perspective by A.K Bhattacharya[119], Buddhist art in India and Sri Lanka by V.K Dabral[120], Arts of Thailand by Steve Van Beek and Invernizzi Luca Tettoni[121], Origins of Thai Art by Betty Gosling[122] and Sinhalese Monastic Architecture by Senake Bandaranayake[123]. The article “Exploring Early India’s Trade Linkages with Thailand” by Suchandra Ghosh in Aspects of Indian History and Culture edited by Sudipa Roy Bandopadhyay, Rita Choudhuri and Mahua Chakrabarty[124] and S.K Guptas article in the book entitled India’s Interaction with South East Asia edited by G.C Pande[125] provide significant data regarding the cultural linkages of the atelier of Amarāvatī with that of South East Asia. Amar Nath Khanna’s book Hindu and Buddhist Monuments and the Remains of South East Asia[126] again enlighten us on the Indian cultural cross currents with the art of South East Asia. Several articles in the book The Cultural Triangle of Sri Lanka published by UNESCO[127] and the Architectural Remains, Anuradhapura, Ceylon Comprising The Dagabas and certain other ancient ruined structures by James G. Smither[128] contain ample specimens of Sri Lankan art treasure which bear evidences of Amaravati’s links with Sri Lankan art. The Cultural Interface of India with Asia edited by Anupa Pande and Parul Pandya Dhar[129] contain several articles which immensely enriched our database in understanding the tangible traces of Indian culture with that of South East Asia. The article by Phasook Indrawooth concerning religio–artistic beliefs in the Dvaravati Kingdom in Bachchan Kumar’s edited book The Art of Indonesia[130] suggest cultural connectivity between Amaravati and art of Indonesia. The article by O. Bopearachchi in Tradition and Archaeology, Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean edited by Himanshu Prabha Ray and Jean Francois Salles132, we get information about Roman trading network to Sri Lanka via Indian subcontiment. Trade and commercial activities in Malayo-Indonesian World by H.B Sarkar[131] throw light on the sculptural influences of Amaravati on the art of South-East Asia and also indicate to the system of communication from the Andhra coast to South East Asia. An interesting work on Intaglios, rings and other object from Burma and Java by Shiela E. Hoey Middleton[132] also throws light on same patterns noticed in the objects from Amarāvatī and those of Burma and Java. Robert L. Brown’s article ‘The importance of Gupta period and sculpture in South East Asian Art’ in the book entitled Early Interactions between South and South East Asia[133] give fresh insight into the Indian influence on Buddha figures in South East Asia. It attempts to assign a date basing on iconographic specialties and question the earlier time frame of Buddha figures in South East Asia.
Often ins the methodology of the study (Homogenous Sampling Method) it becomes imperative to take notice of the decorative details to understand the features, stylistic similarities and differences and chronological attribution of the artefacts drawn from ‘Amarāvatī School’ and those of a much wider geographical area. Hence it is necessary to undertake occasional visual explorations of art centres, museums and exhibitions pertinent to our study in order to have a better understanding of the subject matter. In this context we have explored sites like Amarāvatī, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, Ghaṇṭaśālā, Jaggayyapeṭa, Gummādidurru, Alluru, Bhaṭṭiprolu, Guḍivāḍa and studied antiquities preserved in the Archaeological Museums of Amarāvatī, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa, Ghaṇṭaśālā, Madras Government Museum, Victoria Museum (Vijayawada) and Indian Museum. The exhibition conducted by the Indian Museum on Indian Buddhist Art from the National Museum, New Delhi and five sites museums of Archaeological Survey of India have greatly enriched our study. After all, the genuine creative reproductions revealed in such explorations are extremely important as they serve as the primary sources which are corroborated by other sources at our disposal.
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
[2]:
Sewell Robert, 1880, Report on the Amaravati Tope and Excavations on its site in 1877, London.
[4]:
Burgess Jas, 1970, The Buddhist stupas of Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta in the Krishna District, Madras Presidency Surveyed in 1982, Varanasi.
[5]:
[6]:
Ray Amita, 1983, Life and Art of Early Andhradesa, Delhi.
[7]:
Roy Anamika, 1994, Amarāvatī Stūpa, A Critical Comparison of Epigraphic Architectural and Sculptural Evidence, Delhi.
[8]:
Sen A.C, 1956, Buddhist remains in India, New Delhi, pp 126-137.
[9]:
Dhavalikar M.K, 2004, Sātavāhana Art, Delhi, pp 17-76, pp 87-90.
[10]:
Prasad B. Rajendra, 1980, Art of South India, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi.
[11]:
Gangoly O.C, 1973, Andhra Sculptures, Hyderabad.
[12]:
Sarkar H and Nainar S.P, 2003, Amaravati, New Delhi.
[14]:
Subramanian K.S, 1981, Buddhist Remains in South India and Early Andhra History, 225 AD TO 610 AD, New Delhi, pp 11-52.
[15]:
Yazdani G, 1952, History of Deccan, Fine Arts, Architecture, Sculpture and Painting, vol 1, Part-VIII, London, pp 1-47.
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Kramrisch Stella, 1954, Tradition of Indian Art Painting and Architecture India, London, pp 28-38.
[17]:
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Rana Jyoti Rohilla, 2013, The Sculptural Art of Amarāvatī, Delhi.
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Subrahmanyam B, 2005, Jatakas in South Indian Art, Delhi.
[41]:
Ahir D.C, 2000, The Influence of the Jatakas in Art and Literature, Delhi, pp 12-22.
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Parimoo Ratan, 2010, Life of Buddha in Indian Sculpture, New Delhi.
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[44]:
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[49]:
Harvey Peter, 1991, ‘Venerated object and symbols of early Buddhism’ in Werner Karel (ed), Symbols in Art and Religion, The Indian and the Comparative Perspective, Delhi, pp 68-100.
[50]:
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[51]:
Basu Santona, 2002, Lotus Symbol in Indian Literature and Art, Delhi, pp 1- 82.
[52]:
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[53]:
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[54]:
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