2. Descriptions of nature and natural objects

In the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā, the sense of reverence was at the root of the religion. Everything which is evil may become a direct object of adoration. The existence of divinities was believed not only behind the natural phenomena but also in the stones and trees and images of earth, wood etc.^[1] Heaven, earth, mountains, rivers, plants might be bestowed as divine powers. The animals which surround man, the horse by which he is borne into battle, the cow which supplies him with nourishment, even the god, the bird of omen and other animals might be invoked. Even objects fashioned by the hand of man, weapons, the war-car, drum, the plough, the furrow as well as ritual elements, such as the pressing stones and the sacrificial post might be adored. Every object as well as every idea of mind in the visible creation is capable of elevation to the rank of gods. They are either abstract personifications often very ancient indeed such as Puramdhi, i.e. abundance Aramati, i.e. piety, Asunītī, i.e. blessedness, Mṛtyu, i.e. death, Manyu, i.e. wrath, or defied objects, such as Sarasvatī and Sindhu which are at once rivers and goddess.^[2] Many inanimate objects are invoked as if they are alive in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā.^[3] The stones are said to roar with green mouth.^[4] Rivers are said to have harnessed their car.^[5]

The hills and Mountains were worshipped by the people in the Ṛgvedic age. Mountains have been held by ancient people to be the domiciles. Parvata, i.e. a Mountain is frequently referred to Indra. In one passage, both Parvata and Indra are entreated to purify the intellects of the worshippers.^[6] Indra and Parvata are also urged to destroy the enemies in battle with the thunderbolt,^[7] and Parvata separately to grant food together with the waters.^[8] Moreover, the downward slopes of the Mountains and the assemblages of the rivers are considered as sacred, where man used to perform sacrifices. According to R.T.H. Griffith, Parvata is the presiding Genius of the Mountains and ruler of the clouds,^[9] which is clearly explained by Sāyaṇācārya in his commentary.^[10]

The Vedic Āryans lived in close propinquity with the nature and environment. It is found that climate of the Sapta-Sindhu was favourable for abundant growth of trees, plants, herbs, fruits and flowers etc. In the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā, it is found that vṛḳsa is the ordinary term for tree.^[11] Those plants which have healing power or the herbal plants are called oṣadhi.^[12] Virut is the term for minor vegetable growths of herbs.^[13]

Besides these, the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā also describes other group of plants,e.g. phalinī or fruitful plants,^[14] aphalā or fruitless plants,^[15] apuspā, i.e. blossomless,^[16] puspiṇī, i.e. those that blossom,^[17] libujā,^[18] or vratati,^[19] i.e. creeping plants, shrubs, grasses and bushes etc. A large number of trees, plants, herbs, creepers and grasses are mentioned in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā. It mentions many small and big trees. Some of the trees mentioned in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā are Aśvatthā, Khādira, Śiṃśapā, Śamī etc. Among them, Aśvatthā or peepal is the tall and big tree. It is called Aśvattha, i.e. horse-stand, because the shade of the tree was used for stabling horses.^[20]

The Sapta-Sindhu region was full of fruit-bearing trees. There are available ripe fruits in that region.^[21] Specific names of vegetables or fruits are not mentioned in detail in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā as in later literature.

In the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā, descriptions of herbs and creepers are found.^[22] There are mentions oṣadhis. Sāyaṇācārya explains the term oṣadhi as—oṣaḥ pākaḥ āsu dhīyati iti oṣadhayaḥ….^[23] Such herbs cure many diseases. These have healing power.^[24] The term virut, which means a creeper, is defined by Śāyaṇācārya as—oṣadhi^[25] and latā.^[26]

In the world of plant, soma is the most celebrated plant. The whole ninth maṇḍala is devoted to Soma or the defied soma juice. From the soma plant, soma juice is extracted. This plant grows in the hills.^[27]

In the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā, there are different kinds of water plants and weeds are mentioned. Among them, lotus is very important. There are two varieties of lotus, i.e. Puṇḍarīka^[28] and Puṣkara.^[29] Puṇḍarīka or white lotus grows in rivers.^[30] Another water-plant called Vetasa or Calumus rotang is mentioned in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā^[31] and later literature.^[32] It grows near lakes and rivers.

The environment of Sapta-Sindhu was also suitable for growing crops. Yava or barley was the major food grain that was cultivated.^[33] The word dhānyabīja mentioned in a Ṛgvedic verse possibly means grain-seed.^[34] The word dhānā mentioned in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā means fried barely, i.e. bhraṣṭayava^[35] or bharaṣṭayavāḥ.^[36] Wheat or Godhūma was not mentioned in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā.

Existences of animals are also found in the Sapta -Sindhu region. In the plains, hills and forests of Sapta-Sindhu, both herbivorous and carnivorous animals are found. Such animals are divided into two parts-domestic and wild animals. Cow and horse are regarded as domestic animals, i.e. grāmyāḥ gavāśvādayaḥ… … Among the various domestic animals, cow is regarded as the most valuable domestic animal. Cow has been given much importance by the Ṛgvedic seers.^{[37] [38]} The cow was of utmost importance to the people for her milk and milk products. These are curds and ghee which formed major portion of the food of the people. Cow-hide was used in number of occasions. Oxen were used to plough the field. The cow was a real boon to the Āryans. Because of such usefulness, it was regarded so sacred and considered aghnyā, i.e. not to be killed. Horse,^[39] i.e. Aśva was common and highly valued domestic animal in the Ṛgvedic age. There were large numbers of horses in the Sapta-Sindhu.^[40] Horses were used for different purposes, i.e. for riding,^[41] drawing chariots,^[42] in war,^[43] to carry load,^[44] etc. It is clear from the Dānastuties that horses were given as gifts.^[45]

Camel, i.e. Ustra,^[46] large flocks of sheep, i.e. Avi^[47] and goat, i.e. Aja^[48] were, no doubt, kept by the people. Besides these animals, other important animals used for various purposes are Bull, i.e. Rṣabha,^[49] Buffalo, i.e. Mahiṣa,^[50] Dog, i.e. Śvan^[51] and Elephant^[52] etc.

Among the wild animals Lion or Siṃha was frequently mentioned in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā.^[53] It was a carnivorous animal found in the plains and hills of Sapta-Sindhu.^[54] Mentions of Vyāghra or Tigers are not found in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā but in later Saṃhitās.^[55] Wild-elephants were known as Hastin^[56] or Mṛgahastin.^[57] Other Animals found in this region is the Boar, i.e. Varāha^[58] or Sūkara,^[59] Wolf or Vṛka,^[60] Lopāśa,^[61] Deer or Mṛga, i.e. Kṛṣṇā or dark^[62] Rohita or red,^[63] pṛṣatī or spotted deer,^[64] Vṛṣākapi,^[65] Hare, i.e. Śaśa is also mentioned in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā.^[66]

Besides these, reptiles, aquatic creatures, insects of certain species and birds were included in the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā.^[67] Reptiles and creatures cover an important portion of nature.

The Ṛgvedasaṃhitā mentions some birds which are found in the SaptaSindhu region,viz. Mayura or Peacock,^[68] and Mayūrī or Peahen,^[69] Ropanākā,^[70] Jay or wood peaker, Kikidivi^[71] or Blue Jay,^[72] Kṣviṅkā^[73] or Kite,^[74] Vartikā,^[75] or Quail,^[76] Kapiñjala,^[77] Śuka^[78] or parrot, Kapota,^[79] Dove.^[80]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

cf., Dasgupta, S.N., Religion and the Rational Outlook, p. 45

[2]:

cf., Barth, A., The religion of India, p.24

[3]:

acetanesu api etad bhavati | Nirukta, 7.2.7

[4]:

ete vadanti śatavatsahasrav adhi krandanti haretebhirāsabhiḥ | Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 10.94.2

[5]:

sukhaṃ rathaṃ yuyuje sindhuraśvinaṃ tena vājaṃ sanisadasminnājau | Ibid., 10.75.9

[6]:

śiśītamindrāparvatā yuvam nastanno viśve varivasyantu devaḥ | Ibid., 1.122.3

[7]:

yuvaṃ tamindrāparvatā puroyudhā yo naḥ | pṛtanyādapa taṃtamiddhataṃ vajreṇa taṃtamiddhatam || Ibid.,1.132.6

[8]:

tanno’hirbudhnyo adbhirarkaistatparvatastatsavitā cano dhāt | tadoṣadhībhirapi rātiṣāco bhagaḥ puraṃdhirjinvatu pra rāye || Ibid., 6.49.14

[9]:

cf.,Griffith, R.T.H., The Hymns of the Ṛgveda, on 1.122.3

[10]:

parvataḥ parvavān vṛṣṭyādipūraṇavān parjanyaḥ | Sāyaṇācārya’s com. on Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 1.122.3

[11]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 1.164.20, 22; 2.14.2; 4.20.5;5.78.6

[12]:

Ibid., 10.97

[13]:

vīrutsu oṣadhīṣu mahitvā……. | Sāyaṇācārya’s com. on Ibid., 1.67.9

[14]:

yāḥ phalinīryā aphalā apuṣpā yāśca puṣpiṇīḥ | bṛhaspatiprasūtāstā no muñcantvaṃhasaḥ || Ibid.,10.97.15

[15]:

Ibid.

[16]:

Ibid.

[17]:

Ibid.

[18]:

bato batāsi yama naiva te manohṛdayaṃ cāvidāma | anyā kila tvāṃ kakṣyeva yuktam pari ṣvajāte libujeva vṛkṣam || Ibid., 10.10.13

[19]:

vratateriva yathā vallyāḥ guṣpitaṃ nirgatāṃ śākhāṃ vṛścati tathā……| Sāyaṇācārya’s com. on Ibid.,8.40.6

[20]:

Vide, Dvivedi, K.N., Ṛgvaidik Bhugol, p.60

[21]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 1.8.8; 3.45.4,;4.20.5,;10.146.5

[22]:

Ibid., 1.67.5

[23]:

Sāyaṇācārya’s com. on Ibid., 1.90.6

[24]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 10.97.2; 6,8,11

[25]:

Ibid., 10.97

[26]:

vīrudhaḥ oṣadhayaḥ ………| Sāyaṇācārya’s com. on Ibid., 10.40.9 also, 10.45.4

[27]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 1.93.6; 3.48.2; 5.36.2; 5.43.4; 9.46.1; 9.62.4

[28]:

Ibid., 10.142.8

[29]:

Ibid., 7.33.11; 6.16.13; 10.184.2

[30]:

Ibid., 4.58.5

[31]:

Atharvaveda Saṃhita, 10.7.41;Vājasaneyī Saṃhitā, 17.6

[32]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 1.23.15; 1.135.8; 2.5.6; 2.14.11; 5.85.3; 10.69.3

[33]:

Ibid., 5.53.13

[34]:

Sāyaṇācārya’s com. on Ibid., 1.16.2

[35]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 8.91.2

[36]:

grāmyāḥ gavāśvādayaḥ…… | Sāyaṇācārya’s com. on Ibid., 10.90.8

[37]:

sūyavaśadbhagavatī hi bhūyā atho vayaṃ bhagavantaḥ syā ma | addhi tṛṇamaghnye viśvadāmīṃ piba śudhamudakamā carantī || Ibid., 1.164.40, also Ibid.,

[38]:

.1.6; 5.83.8; 8.69.2

[39]:

svaśvā sindhuḥ surathā suvāsā hiraṇyayī sukṛtā vājinīvatī | ūrṇāvatī yuvatiḥ silamāvatyutādhi vaste subhagā madhuvṛdham || Ibid., 10. 75.8

[40]:

Ibid., 5.61.11; 8.5.7, 8

[41]:

Ibid., 2.27.16

[42]:

Ibid., 6.46.13; 9.97.54

[43]:

Ibid., 8.74.14

[44]:

Ibid., 2.34.3

[45]:

Ibid., 8.46

[46]:

Ibid., 1.138.2; 8.5.37; 8.46.22, 31

[47]:

Ibid., 4.22.2

[48]:

Ibid., 1.138.4; 8.18.17; 8.70.15

[49]:

Ibid., 3.2.11

[50]:

Ibid., 8.35.7, 9; 9.87.7

[51]:

Ibid., 2.39.4

[52]:

Ibid., 4.4.1; 8.33.8; 10.40.4

[53]:

Ibid., 1.64.8; 1.95.5; 3.2.11; 4.16.14

[54]:

Ibid., 1.154.2

[55]:

tapano asmi piśācānāṃ vyāghro gomatamiva | śvānaḥ siṃhamiva dṛṣṭvā ten a vindante nyaṅcanam || Atharvaveda Saṃhita, 4.36.6; 4.31.1; 6.38.1, Vājasaneyī Saṃhitā, 14.9; 21.39

[56]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 1.64.7

[57]:

Ibid., 4.16.14

[58]:

Ibid., 1.61.7; 9.97.7; 10.28.4

[59]:

Ibid., 7.55.4

[60]:

Ibid., 1.42.2; 1.105.7; 1.116.14; 6.51.14;7.38.7; 10.39.13

[61]:

Ibid., 10.28.4

[62]:

kṛṣṇāḥ kṛṣṇamṛgā iva ….. | Sāyaṇācārya’s com. on Ibid., 10.94.5

[63]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 1.39.6

[64]:

Ibid., 1.39.6; 1.85.4

[65]:

Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., The Hymns of the Ṛgveda on 10.86.5, p.596

[66]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 10.28.9

[67]:

ahiriva sarpa iva …..| Sāyaṇācārya’s com. on Ibid., 6.75.14 ahirna ahiriva jūrṇāṃ jīrṇāṃ tvacaṃ ati sarpati atimuñcati | Sāyaṇācārya’s com. on Ibid., 1.191.16,also vide, Ibid.,1.126

[68]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 3.45.1; 8.1.25

[69]:

Ibid., 1.191.14

[70]:

Ibid., 1.50.12

[71]:

Ibid., 10.97.13

[72]:

Ibid., also vide, Wilson, H.H., Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, vol.6, on 10.97.13, p.346

[73]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 10.87.7

[74]:

Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., The Hymns of the Ṛgveda, on 10.87.7, p.598

[75]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 1.117.16

[76]:

Vide, Wilson, H.H., Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, vol. 1, on 1.117.16, p.385

[77]:

Ṛgveda Saṃhitā, 2.43.1

[78]:

Ibid., 1.50.12

[79]:

Ibid., 1.30.4, 10,165.1

[80]:

Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., The Hymns of the Ṛgveda, on 1.165.1, p.645