Concept of Oneness in the Upanishads (study)

by Chandra Shekhar Upadhyaya | 2015 | 52,584 words

This page relates ‘Upanishad: A Brief Introduction’ of the study dealing with the Concept of Oneness in the Upanishads—Spiritual teachings of ancient India in the form of Sanskrit literature. The Upanisads teach us the essential oneness of humanity and guide us to the truth that the whole world is a family.This concept of oneness is the very essence of spiritualism, which constitutes the solid structure of Indian culture.

Upaniṣad: A Brief Introduction

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Human beings have been trying to realise the mystery of the creation of this universe from time immemorial. As the finest creation of the creator, human beings possess the spontaneous inquisitiveness to know the eternal power, which is the controlling force of this universe. From their natural inquisitiveness, the seers of ancient India vertically gained that unique knowledge, which shatters ignorance and enlightens the human beings that one Brahman or Supreme Being is the Ultimate Reality that pervades the whole universe. The entire thought of the ancient Indian seers has been preserved in the Upaniṣads, which deal with the conceptions of Brahman and Ātman and Ātman again is indentified with one Supreme Soul, i.e., Brahman. Thus, the fundamental doctrine of the Upaniṣads is concentrated in the concept of non-dualism or oneness.

The Upaniṣads are the treasure house of knowledge and thoughts of ancient Indian seers, which are the foundation and integral part of Indian culture and spiritual tradition. These are considered as the resourceful sources of philosophical ideas of the ancient Indian seers from a very earliest period of time. These are also the sources of Indian psychology, cosmology and later philosophical ideas like Sāmkhya, Yoga, Nyāya etc. The Upaniṣads also contain the basis for all the religious systems like Tantra, Buddhism and spiritual disciplines of Jñānayoga, Karmayoga, Bhaktiyoga and so on and so forth.

The term Upaniṣad generally means ‘sitting down near’, i.e., sitting down near the guru to receive the secret instructions. The term Upaniṣad is derived from upa (near), ni (down) and ṣad (to sit), i.e., sitting down near the teacher for esoteric doctrine. “The seers and sages of Ancient India, sitting under a tree, in a far-off forest, revealed fundamental principles of perennial philosophy to students who had gone to them with questions of deep and serious inquiry into the very nature of life itself.”^[1] According to M. Hiriyanna, “Etymologically the word is equivalent to ‘sitting’ (ṣad), nearby (upa), devotedly (ni)’, and in course of time it came to signify the secret instruction imparted at such private sittings.”^[2]

Śaṃkarācārya, the great commentator states in the introduction to the commentary of the Kaṭha Upaniṣad:

‘kena punararthayogena upaniṣacchabdena vidyā ucyate, ityucyate/ ye mumukṣavo dṛṣṭānuśravikaviṣayavitṛṣṇāḥ santaḥ upaniṣacchabdavācyāṃ vakṣyamāṇalakṣaṇāṃ vidyām upasadya, upagamya, tanniṣṭhatayā niścayena śīlayanti, teṣāṃ avidyādeḥ saṃsārabījasya viśaraṇāt, hiṃsanāt, vināśanāt ityanena arthyogena vidyā upaniṣad ityucyate//’^[3]

[Trans: By what etymological process does the term “upaniṣad” denote knowledge? This is now explained. Those who seek liberation, being endowed with the spirit of dispassion towards all sense objects, seen or heard of, and approaching this knowledge indicated by the term “upaniṣad” presently to be explained, devote themselves to it with one-pointed determination–of such people, this knowledge removes, shatters, or destroys the avidyā (ignorance or spiritual blindness), which is the seed of all relative existence or worldliness. By these etymological connexions, “upaniṣad” is said to mean knowledge.]^[4]

Śaṃkarācārya gives the meaning of the term Upaniṣad as:

‘saderdhātubiśaraṇagatyāvasādhanārthasya upa ni purvasya kvippratyayāntasyarūpam upaniṣaditi//’^[5]

Śaṃkarācārya derives the term Upaniṣad from upa-ni+√ṣad+kvip. Here ‘upa’ and ‘ni’ are upasargas. Kvip is suffix. The term ṣad has three meanings. These three meanings are (i) destroy (biśaraṇa [viśaraṇa]), (ii) to reach (gati or prāpti) and (iii) to loosen (avasādana). The meaning of the term ‘upa’ is nearby and nothing can be more closer to one than one’s own inner self, since all things become closer when it is related to the innermost self. The teaching of the Upaniṣads guide the human beings to the theosophical knowledge, i.e., Brahmajñāna, where one can merge himself into Brahman by realising Its proper nature. Because,

(a) The Upaniṣad are the repository of the wisdom of the ancient Indian seers that leads the self (Ātman) to Brahman (Paramātman). The Upaniṣads help in eliminating avidyā or ignorance which is eradicated by true knowledge of Brahman.

(b) In this world human beings are engulfed with avidyā or ignorance. Therefore, they fail to understand the real nature of their own self. They can not realise the identity of their inner self (Ātman) with the Supreme Being, i.e., the Brahman. The Upaniṣads instruct the way to understand the real nature of the Paramātman, i.e., Brahman.

(c) The Upaniṣads destroys superfluous activities by eliminating avidyā and leads us towards light, i.e., true spiritual knowledge. This spiritual knowledge dealt in the Theosophy guides us with the proper knowledge of living in this material world and the Upaniṣads are considered as the authoritative treatises of this theosophy.

Śaṃkarācārya again states:

‘nanu ca upaniṣacchabdena adhyetāro granthamapi abhilapanti, upaniṣadaṃ adhīmahe, upaniṣadaṃ adhyāpayāma iti ca/naiṣa doṣaḥ, avidyādisaṃsārahetuviśaraṇādeḥ sadidhātvarthasya granthamātre asambhavāt, vidyāyāṃ ca sambhavāt, granthasyāpi tādarthyena tacchabdatvopapatteḥ, āyurvai ghṛtam ityādivat/tasmāt vidyāyāṃ mukhyayā vṛttyā upaniṣacchabdo vartate, granthe tu bhaktyā iti//’^[6]

[Trans: It may be urged that students use the term “upaniṣad” even to denote a book, as when they say “We shall study the Upaniṣad”, “We shall teach the Upaniṣad”. This is no fault; since the destruction etc. of the seed of worldliness, which is the meaning of the root ṣad (in upa-ni-ṣad), cannot be had from a mere book, but can be had from knowledge, even the book may also be denoted by that term, because it serves the same purpose (indirectly), as when we say that “clarified butter is verily life”. Therefore, the term “upaniṣad” primarily refers to knowledge, and only secondarily to a book.]^[7]

Diwakar R.R. has rightly stated that, the term Upaniṣad has been used in two meanings. In the first sense, the term Upaniṣad indicates sitting near and the another sense, the term Upaniṣad means destroying completely, i.e., completely destroying the ignorance. The first meaning is the intimate teaching of a preceptor to his dear disciples. Again, in the second meaning of the term Upaniṣad is the divine knowledge which destroys all our ignorance that attaches us to this material world.^[8]

Upaniṣad can be interpreted from the point of view of varieties of thought–idealistic, materialistic, empirical and metaphysical and so on. Upaniṣad occupies a honourable position in the attempt to grasp the basic truth of the Supreme Being, i.e., the Ultimate Reality. The sum and substance of Upaniṣadic thought can be formulated in the form of an equation namely Brahman, i.e., Ātman. Indeed the meaning of the term Upaniṣad is the ‘real of the real’.^[9] Oldenberg maintains that epistomologically the term Upaniṣad signifies the meaning of upāsanā, i.e., devotioning or homaging the Ultimate Reality in the shape of Brahman or Ātman.^[10] Alladi Mahadeva Sastry has stated that, “The theme of a particular science ought to be that which is not treated of in any other science. Drugs of various sorts, planetary motion, and right formation of words are said to be the themes of Medicine, Astronomy, Grammar, respectively, because they are not treated of elsewhere. So, the theme of this science of the Upanishad is Advaita, non-duality of the Self, which is not treated of elsewhere. In fact, the non-duality of the Self is known from the Upanishad alone and from no other source of knowledge.”^[11]

The Upaniṣads are also known as Vedānta. Veda means knowledge and anta means end. The Upaniṣads are so called because they comprise the end of the Vedas. The Upaniṣads are regarded as the cream of the Vedas. The term Vedānta indicates not only the final knowledge, but that knowledge after receiving which nothing remains to be received. However the Upaniṣads may be considered as the Vedānta, i.e., end of the Vedas for the following three reasons.^[12] Firstly, chronologically the Upaniṣads are the last products of the Vedic period. The Vedic literature consists of three distinct parts. These are called the Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇas and the Upaniṣads, The Ṛgveda, Yajurveda, Sāmaveda and the Atharvaveda contain Vedic hymns (mantras) which form the Saṃhitās. Saṃhitās are the compilation of the hymns composed by the seers and Vedic rituals and guidings are composed by the priests. These rituals and guidings are incorporated in the Brāhmaṇas. The philosophical discourses containd in the last part of the Vedas are composed by the philosophers. This last part is called the Upaniṣads. Secondly, the Upaniṣads also come last as a course of study. The life of the Indians are divided into four stages, viz., Brahmacarya, Gārhastya, Vānaprastha and Sanyāsa. A man has to spend his time by reading Saṃhitās under strict discipline in the house of the preceptors during the period of Brahmacarya. After the completion of the first stage, guidance are given by the Brāhmaṇas for entering into the family life. The study of the Upaniṣad is required when one is retired to the forest. Therefore, some of the Upaniṣads are also called forest treatises or Āraṇyakam. Thirdly, the Upaniṣads may be regarded as the end of the Vedas in the sense that they represent the culmination and essence of vedic thoughts. The Upaniṣads have revealed the fact that even after the study of the Vedas with other branches of learning, a man’s education is not complete unless and until he gets instruction in the Upaniṣadic thought.

Among the three prasthānas, viz., Śruti-prasthāna, Smṛti-prasthāna and Nyāya-prasthāna; the Upaniṣads are regarded as the Śruti-prasthāna. Upaniṣads are so called because they are spring up directly from the Śruti or Vedas.

The main subject-matter of the Upaniṣads is the enquiry of the Ultimate Reality which is also known as Ātman or Brahman in the Upaniṣads. All the Upaniṣads teach the Ātmavidyā or Brahmavidyā, the science of the Absolute.

The essential identity between Individual self and Supreme Self has been found in the mahāvākyas of the Upaniṣads which are as follows:

‘tattvamasi’^[13]
‘prajñānaṃ brahma’^[14]
‘ahaṃ brahmāsmi’^[15]
‘ayamātmā brahma’^[16]

The above mentioned four mahāvākyas come from different Upaniṣads. According to Śaṃkarācārya, the individual self (jivātman) and the Supreme Self (Paramātman) are essentially one and non-different. Taking these four mahāvākyas as the base, Śaṃkarācārya and other Vedāntins have developed a non-dualistic concept of Brahman.

In this way, the main teaching of the Vedānta or Upaniṣad is the identity of the jivātman and Paramātman. The philosophy of the Vedānta gives us the concept of Supreme Reality or Brahman, which is the Absolute. This Ultimate Reality or Absolutism is the major topic of discussion of all the Upaniṣads and their commentaries.

Some important teaching of the Vedānta philosophy are as follows:

(i) According to Vedānta, Brahman is the Ultimate Reality, which is known as existence consciousness, bliss and absolute. Through Its power of māya or avidyā, Brahman, the Ultimate Reality of this whole universe manifests itself as the universe and the beings. This Supreme Reality when connects with Its māyā or ajñāna, it is called Īśvara.

(ii) According to Vedānta, this universe is not real. Because, after realising the nature of Ātman or Brahman one can attain the liberation and become free from birth and death. After comprehending the nature of Brahman, there will be no attachment to this material world. That is why, this universe is not real. Brahman is the only real thing of this universe.

(iii) Vedānta gives human being a divine status. Their real nature is not different from Absolute. They are essentially and ontologically one with the Supreme Brahman.

(iv) Vedānta holds that the ultimate goal of every religion is same. The significance of Vedānta lies in the fact that it is not confined to one particular religion or philosophy. According to Vedānta, truth is one and universal, which is nothing but Brahman itself.

(v) According to Vedānta, liberation or mokṣa means the knowledge of Ultimate Reality, i.e., Brahman. By understanding the nature of Supreme Brahman or Ātman, man can attain the liberation.

The scholars of both the eastern and western countries have given their own opinion regarding the importance of the Upaniṣads. The diversified observations of the scholars are mentioned below:

Schopenhour, a celebrated German philosopher, admits that, “The Upaniṣads are the most rewarding and elevating reading possible in the world; they have been the solace of my life and will be so to the end of my llife.”^[17] According to Bloomfield, “There is no important form of Hindu thought, heterodox Buddhism included, which is not rooted in the Upaniṣads.”^[18] In the Opinion of Victor Cousin, “……. when we read with attention the poetical and philosophical movements of the East, above all those of India which are beginning to spread in Europe, we discover there so many truths, and truths so profound and which make such a contrast with the meanness of the results at which the European genius has sometimes stopped, that we are constrained to bend the knee before that of the East, and to see in this cradle of the human race the native land of this highest philosophy.”^[19] Johnston Charles maintains that, “I have found them wise, beyond all others; and beyond all others, filled with that very light which makes all things new……….. That glowing heart within us, we are beginning to guess, is the heart of all things, the everlasting foundation of the world.”^[20] According to Paul Deussen, “The great Upaniṣads are the deep still mountain tarn, fed from the pure waters of the everlasting snows, lit by clear sunshine, or by night mirroring the high serenity of the stars….. On the tree of Indian wisdom, there is no fairer flower than the Upaniṣads, no finer fruit than the Vedānta philosophy.”^[21] M. Hiriyanna states, “They represent the earliest efforts of man at giving a philosophic explanation of the world, and are as such invaluable in the history of human thought.”^[22] He again says, “Their importance is much more than historical, for their unique spiritual power and the elements of universal appeal which they contain may exercise a considerable influence on the re-construction of thought and realignment of life in the future.”^[23] According to Max Muller, the Upaniṣads are “Like the light of the morning, like the pure air of the mountains–so simple, so true, if once understood.”^[24] Paul Deussen again states regarding the Upaniṣads as, “The strongest support of pure morality, the greatest consolation in the sufferings of life and death.”^[25] Robert Ernest Hume asserts that, “The Upaniṣads undoubtedly have great historical and comparative value, but they are also of great present day importance.”^[26] Comprehending the importance of the Upaniṣads Mahatma Gandhi says, “I have now come to the final conclusion that if all the Upaniṣads and all the other scriptures happened all of a sudden to be reduced to ashes and if only the first verse in the Īśopaniṣad were left intact in the memory of the Hindus, Hinduism would live for ever.”^[27] In the opinion of Rohit Mehta, “It is in the Vision of Life given by the Upanishads that man can find the fundamental philosophy of Creative Living–a philosophy that can serve as a Beacon Light even in the midst of surrounding darkness, a philosophy that can lead him from the unreal to the Real, from darkness to Light, from death to Immortality.”^[28] Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, the great philosopher states, “The Upaniṣads are respected not because they are a part of śruti or revealed literature and so hold a reserved position but because they have inspired generations of Indians with vision and strength by their inexhaustible significance and spiritual power… Their light is for the seeing eye and their message is for the seeker after truth.”^[29]

Wisdom can not be attained without deep devotion. To understand the true nature of the Vedas, one should have to approach to a competent spiritual preceptor and listen from him with utmost reverence.

This is what has been referred to in the book ‘Constructive Philosophy of India’ thus:

‘praṇipātena, paripraśnena, sevayā or śrotavyaṃ mantavyaṃ nididhyāsitabyam//’^[30]

A learner has to follow a few steps like śravaṇa, manana, etc., for attaining the true wisdom. For śravaṇa, i.e., hearing the truth, a learner has to approach to an Upaniṣadic preceptor with utmost reverence and he has to listen the eternal Vedic truths under the strict discipline and guidance of the spiritual preceptor. Then paripraśnena or manana, i.e., reasoned reflection or introspection for self-realisation is essential for attaining true wisdom. The Upaniṣadic teachers tried to bring forth the true meaning, significance and implications of the mystical experiences of the Vedic seers. The third discipline is ‘nididhyāsana’, i.e., continuous meditation on truth, which ultimately leads one towards the Supreme Bliss.

Searching for happiness and thereby to attain a peaceful life is one of the most important things that every human being wants to achieve in his life. The Vedic seers focused on self-consciousness, intelligent-comprehension, sacrifices, offerings etc., through which men can live happily here in and hereafter. These are some of the ways to attain heavenly pleasures. The Upaniṣadic preceptors have pointed out that avidyā or ignorance is the obstacle for achieving the absolute bliss. For this ignorance human beings think that attainment of material pleasures is the only way to enjoy heavenly happiness. They want to experience permanent bliss and unlimited joy by the limited fulfillment of material pleasures.

But, the Upaniṣadic seers have highlighted that enduring peace or everlasting happiness can not be achieved through the enjoyment of limited or temporary objects–

‘nālpe sukhamasti bhūmaiva sukham’.^[31]

According to the Upaniṣadic seers, everlasting peace and happiness cannot be attained in this temporary world. The Upaniṣads teach that the truth lies not in the external things but in internal introspection and reflective thoughts, which is the path to achieve the eternity.