Text 133

Sanskrit text, Unicode transliteration and English translation of Text 133:

धर्मः पुरुषगुणः । कर्तुः प्रियहितमोक्षहेतुः अतीन्दिर्योऽन्त्यसुखसंविज्ञानविरोधी पुरुषान्तह्करणसम्योगविशुद्धाभिसन्धिजः वर्णाश्रमिणां प्रतिनियतसाधननिमित्तः । तस्य तु साधनानि श्रुतिस्मृतिविहितानि वर्णाश्रमिणां सामान्यविशेषभावेनावस्थितानि द्रव्यगुणकर्माणि । तत्र सामान्यानि धर्मे श्रद्धा अहिंसा भूतहितत्वं सत्यवचनम् अस्तेयं ब्रहमचर्यम् अनुपधा क्रोधवर्जनम् अभिषेचनं शिचिद्रव्यसेवनं विशिष्टदेवताभक्तिरुपवासोऽप्रमादश्च । ब्राह्मणक्षचियवैश्यानामिज्याध्ययनदानानि ब्राह्मणस्य विशिष्टानि प्रतिग्रहाध्यापनयाजनानि स्ववर्णविहिताश्च संस्काराः । क्षत्रियस्य सम्यक् प्रजापालनम् असाधुनिग्रहो युद्धेष्वनिवर्तनं स्वकीयाश्च संस्काराः । वैश्यस्य क्रियविक्रयकृषिपशुपालनानि स्वकीयाश्च संस्काराः । शूद्रस्य पूर्ववर्णपारतन्त्र्यम् अमन्त्रिकाश्च क्रियाः । आश्रमिणां तु ब्रह्मचारिणो गुरुकुलनिवासिनः स्वशास्त्रविहितानि गुरुशुश्रूषाग्नीन्धनभैक्ष्याचरणानि मधुमांसदिवास्वप्नांजनाभ्यञजनादिवर्जनं च । विद्याव्रतस्नातकस्य कृतदारस्य गृहस्थस्य शालीनयायावरवृत्त्युपार्जितैरर्थैर्भूतमनुष्यदेवपितृब्रह्माख्यानां पञ्वानां महायज्ञानं सायम्प्रातरनुष्ठानम् एकाग्निविधानेन पाकयज्ञसंस्थानां च नित्यानां शक्तौ विद्यमानायाम् अग्न्याधेयादीनां च हविर्यज्ञसंस्थानाम् अग्निष्टोमादीनां सोमयज्ञसंस्थानां च । ऋत्वन्तरेषु ब्रह्मचर्यम् अपत्योत्पादनं च । ब्रह्मचारिणो गृहस्थस्य वा ग्रामान् निर्गतस्य वनवासो वल्ककाजिनकेशश्मश्रुनखरोमधारणं च । वन्यहुतातिथिशेषभोजनानि वानप्रस्थस्य । त्रयाणाम् अन्यतमस्य श्रद्धावतः सर्वभूतेभ्यो नित्यम् अभयं दत्त्वा सम्न्यस्य स्वानि कर्माणि यमनियमेष्वप्रमत्तस्य षट्पदार्थप्रसंख्यानाद् योगप्रसाधनं प्रव्रजितस्येति । दृष्टं प्रयोजनम् अनुद्दिश्यैतानि साधनानि भावप्रसादं चापेक्ष्यात्ममनसोः सम्योगाद् धर्मोत्पत्तिरिति  ॥ १३३ ॥

dharmaḥ puruṣaguṇaḥ | kartuḥ priyahitamokṣahetuḥ atīndiryo'ntyasukhasaṃvijñānavirodhī puruṣāntahkaraṇasamyogaviśuddhābhisandhijaḥ varṇāśramiṇāṃ pratiniyatasādhananimittaḥ | tasya tu sādhanāni śrutismṛtivihitāni varṇāśramiṇāṃ sāmānyaviśeṣabhāvenāvasthitāni dravyaguṇakarmāṇi | tatra sāmānyāni dharme śraddhā ahiṃsā bhūtahitatvaṃ satyavacanam asteyaṃ brahamacaryam anupadhā krodhavarjanam abhiṣecanaṃ śicidravyasevanaṃ viśiṣṭadevatābhaktirupavāso'pramādaśca | brāhmaṇakṣaciyavaiśyānāmijyādhyayanadānāni brāhmaṇasya viśiṣṭāni pratigrahādhyāpanayājanāni svavarṇavihitāśca saṃskārāḥ | kṣatriyasya samyak prajāpālanam asādhunigraho yuddheṣvanivartanaṃ svakīyāśca saṃskārāḥ | vaiśyasya kriyavikrayakṛṣipaśupālanāni svakīyāśca saṃskārāḥ | śūdrasya pūrvavarṇapāratantryam amantrikāśca kriyāḥ | āśramiṇāṃ tu brahmacāriṇo gurukulanivāsinaḥ svaśāstravihitāni guruśuśrūṣāgnīndhanabhaikṣyācaraṇāni madhumāṃsadivāsvapnāṃjanābhyañajanādivarjanaṃ ca | vidyāvratasnātakasya kṛtadārasya gṛhasthasya śālīnayāyāvaravṛttyupārjitairarthairbhūtamanuṣyadevapitṛbrahmākhyānāṃ pañvānāṃ mahāyajñānaṃ sāyamprātaranuṣṭhānam ekāgnividhānena pākayajñasaṃsthānāṃ ca nityānāṃ śaktau vidyamānāyām agnyādheyādīnāṃ ca haviryajñasaṃsthānām agniṣṭomādīnāṃ somayajñasaṃsthānāṃ ca | ṛtvantareṣu brahmacaryam apatyotpādanaṃ ca | brahmacāriṇo gṛhasthasya vā grāmān nirgatasya vanavāso valkakājinakeśaśmaśrunakharomadhāraṇaṃ ca | vanyahutātithiśeṣabhojanāni vānaprasthasya | trayāṇām anyatamasya śraddhāvataḥ sarvabhūtebhyo nityam abhayaṃ dattvā samnyasya svāni karmāṇi yamaniyameṣvapramattasya ṣaṭpadārthaprasaṃkhyānād yogaprasādhanaṃ pravrajitasyeti | dṛṣṭaṃ prayojanam anuddiśyaitāni sādhanāni bhāvaprasādaṃ cāpekṣyātmamanasoḥ samyogād dharmotpattiriti || 133 ||

Text (133).—Dharma is the property of Man; it brings about to the agent happiness, means of happiness and final deliverance; it is supersensuous; it is destructible by the experiencing of the last item of happiness; it (a) is produced by the contact of the Man with the internal organ, by means of pure thoughts and determinations; and with regard to the different castes and conditions of men there are distinct means of accomplishing it.—(I-i-2; VI-ii-1; VI-i-5; X-33-8).

The means of Dharma consists in various substances, qualities and actions, laid down, in the Veda and the Law-Books,—some as belonging in common to all men, and some as pertaining specially to distinct castes and conditions. Among the common ones we have the following: Faith in Dharma, Harmlessness, Benevolence, Truthfulness, Freedom from desire for undue Possession, Freedom from lust, Purity of Intentions, Absence of anger, Bathing, use of purifying substances, Devotion to Deity, Fasting, and Non-neglect (of duties).—(VI-ii-2, 5, 8, 9, 3, 4).

The Dharma common to the Brāhmaṇa, the Kṣattriya and the Vaiśya, consists in the following:—Performing of sacrifices, study, charities; and the specific Dharma of the Brāhmaṇa consists in—the receiving of gifts, Teaching, officiating at sacrifices and the due performance of the rites and ceremonies laid down for the Brāhmaṇa. Of the Kṣattriya, the specific Dharma consists in—Proper care of the people under him, Punishing of Criminals, not fleeing from battle, and the due performance of the rites and ceremonies prescribed for the caste. For the Vaiśya, buying and selling, agriculture, Tending of cattle, and the due performance of the rites laid down for the Vaiśya. For the Śudra,—submission to the other castes and the performance of rites and ceremonies without any mantras.

The specific Dharma of the various states of a man's life is as follows:—For the ‘student,’ living at the house of his teacher, attendance upon the teacher and the Fire, Fetching of fuel, living on alms, in the manner prescribed in the scriptures, the avoidance of such things as wine, meat, sleeping during áay, painting of the eye, the use of unguents and so forth. For the student who, having finished his studies and closed the religions life of the student with the final ‘bath’, has taken a wife to himself and settled as a householder,—

(A) the morning and evening offering of the five ‘great sacrifices’,—called (1) the ‘Bhūtayajña’ (sacrifice to animals), (2) the ‘Manuṣya yajña (sacrifice to men), (3) ‘Devayajña’ (sacrifice to divine beings), (4) ‘Pitṛyajña’ (sacrifice to the Fathers), and (5) ‘Brahmayajña’ (sacrifice to the Brahma or Veda),—by means of wealth acquired by such methods(a) as the ‘Śālīna’ and the ‘Yāyāvara’;

(B) the taking of the Ekāgni Fire and the offering into it of the absolutely necessary ‘Pakayajña’ sacrifices, and also, if possible, of such sacrifices as those of the ‘Agnyādheya’, the ‘Haviryajña’, the ‘Agniṣṭoma’ and the ‘Somayajña’;

(C) and begetting of children, and the avoiding of intercourse at other times For the ‘Student’ as well as the ‘householder’ it is laid down that when he goes away from the village inhabited by him, and betakes himself to the life of the ‘Vānaprastha’ (Recluse), he lives in the forest, wears only skins and bark of trees, never shaves his hair or beard, and never pares his nails, lives only upon wild things, and those also only such as are left after the sacrifices have been performed and the guests duly fed. A man having passed through all these three states, or one being in any one of the states, being moved by the proper amount of faith, takes the vow of universal benevolence and takes to the life of wandering; he should then renounce the specific duties of his previous state, and while not neglecting the internal and external duties of ‘Yama’ and ‘Niyama’, he should acquire the true knowledge of the six Categories and thereby try to accomplish ‘Yoga’ (Union with the Supreme).

The contact of the mind and soul, when aided by all the accessories detailed above, followed without a desire for gaining thereby any visible results and by the utmost purity of motives, tends to bring about ‘Dharma’.

* The Commentary breaks this compound into separate parts [puruṣāntarasaṃyogaja] and [biśuddhābhisandhija]; but it appears better to combine the two as has been done in the translation.

* Foot Note.—The accepting of only so much of the gift as would fill a certain vessel calculated to contain enough, far a fixed number of days, constitutes the ‘Śālina [Śālīna?]’ method of livelihood; and the begging of alms from house to house forms the ‘Yāvāvara’ method of livelihood.

Commentary: The Nyāyakandalī of Śrīdhara.

(English rendering of Śrīdhara’s commentary called Nyāyakandalī or Nyāyakaṇḍalī from the 10th century)

What is known as ‘Dharma’ or ‘Merit’ is a property belonging to Man; and it is not a potency residing in the action performed.

Dharma is the direct cause of happiness, of the means of happiness and also of final Deliverance,—this last consisting in the absolute destruction of all fresh specific qualities of the Self.This sentence is to be taken as a definition of ‘Dharma’:—‘That which, for the performer, is the cause only of happiness is dharma,’ and not that ‘Dharma is that which brings happiness to the performer only’; because we find it laid down in the scriptures that the satisfaction, which is the effect of such Dharma as the performance of the Srāddha, accrues to the Father, i while the actual performer is the Son; and so also when a man desiring rain performs the Kārīrī sacrifice (which is laid down as the sacrifice bringing about rain), its effect, in the form of rain, causes happiness, not to him alone, but to all the other men that j may be living in the place,

Objection:—“Such Vedic declarations as—‘one desiring heaven should perform sacrifices’, which means that ‘he should accomplish heaven for himself by means of the sacrifice’—tend to show that actions are the means of accomplishing desirable ends; and that which unites a mao with something good and desirable is Dharma. Consequently it is the action, of sacrifice for instance, which is Dharma; and hence Dharma cannot be regarded as a property of the Self; and a person who performs such actions is called ‘Dhārmika’ (‘righteous’).”

Reply:—This is not right; because the action having but a momentary existence, could not be the direct cause of the result which appears at some other time.

Objection:—“It is true that Action, of sacrifice f.i., has a momentary existence; and the result in; the shape of heaven appears at some other time; and no effect could be produced from the cause that has been destroyed; and yet we find the Veda declaring that such actions as sacrifice and the like are the causes of results appearing at other times. This Apparent Inconsistency can be reconciled only by postulating that in the action there is a certain potency continuing to exist for a long time, and capable of bringing about the result. This theory keeps intact the fact of Actions leading to results, as declared in the Veda. And as this ‘potency’ is not amenable to any other means of knowledge, it has been called ‘Apūrva’ (Lit. ‘not previously extant’. ‘Something new’). This has been thus declared in the following Kārikā—‘The momentary action being laid down as bringing about a certain result appearing after a long time, this would not be possible except by the assumption of the Apūrva’ (Tantravārtika—Text p. 360, II-i-5).”

Reply:—This is not right; as the said potency could nob inhere in the action itself, which has only a momentary existence; because when the substratum is not there, the potency can not remain without a substratum. As for the result, in the form of heaven for instance, it does not exist at the time that the action is destroyed; and hence the potency could not inhere in the result. If, on the other hand, it be assumed that the result appears immediately after the performance of the action, then in that case, there would be no necessity for assuming any such potency; and there would be nothing to postpone the actual experiencing of the result at that same time. If might be argued that,—“at that time the performer is not endowed with the particular kind of body and organs necessary for the actual experiencing of the result.” But then in that case the result is as good as not appeared; as ‘heaven’ is nothing more than a particular kind of experience. And as for the assumption of a form of pleasure that is not experienced, this would be an assumption of something not actually perceived. Hence the Apūrva cannot be regarded as inhering in the result.

Nor could any result accure [accrue?] to the Self, from a potency inhering in such eternal substances as Ākāśa and the like; in as much as being a reality, it could not subsist without a substratum. Hence it must be admitted to be produced as inhering in the Self. And hence it could not be regarded as a potency of the Action; as the potency of one thing (action) can never subsist in another thing (the Self).

Objection: “We might, on the strength of actual faśt»,| íBume the subsistence of the potency of one thing in another thing; as has been declared in the following kārikā: ‘A potency is always to be inferred from the effects produced; and as such it must be regarded as subsisting in that thing wherein it may be found to exist,—in the same thing or in a different being thing.—(Tantravārtika—II-i-5, Text—Page 372)

Reply: This is not admissible; as when the substance (Action) to which the potency actually belongs, has been destroyed, the potency can not (even though subsisting in another substance, the Self) bring about the result, independently of the former substance.

This same reasoning sets aside the declaration made by Maṇḍana Miśra in his Vidhiviveka, to the effect that—“the potency, having been originated by the action, must subsist in the same.” Because the fact of the potency having been originated by the sacrifice would only make it an effect of that sacrifice; and this would not mean that the potency belongs to, or subsists in, that same sacrifice; as the result is not found to appear from the action as aided by the potency (as the action does not exist at the time of the appearing of the result).

Thus then, it must be admitted that the action having long ceased to exist, the result follows from the Apūrva as aided by the peculiarities of time, place and other attendant circumstances; and thus it is the Apūrva that comes to be the means for the accomplishment of the desired end. And as for the Vedic declaration of sacrifices being the means of accomplishing desirable ends,—the causal efficiency of sacrifices must be taken as applying to them, not directly, but through the intervening agency of the Apūrva produced by them.

For these reasons it is only right to hold that Dharma is a property of the person.

As for the fact of the sacrifice and such other actions being called ‘Dharma’, this name also is due to the fact of their being the direct cause of the production of the Apūrva; just in the same manner as the name ‘heaven’ is applied to that which produces happiness.

That is to say, we find that the Jyotiṣṭoma, which is laid down as accomplishing ‘heaven’ is always eulogised in the valedictory passages of the Veda as the means of happiness; then again, in the case of such substances as sandal-paste and the like, we find that the name ‘heaven’ is applied to them only when they afford pleasure, and not otherwise; and this leads us to think that the application of the name ‘heaven’ depends upon the production of happiness. And in this case we find that even though the word ‘heaven’ actually denotes only happiness, yet it is used in the sense of ‘that which affords happiness;’ and hence the word generally has come to afford the sense of the ‘cause of happiness’; but as this meaning could be explained as being due to the secondary signification (Indication) of the word, it is not at all necessary to regard the word as having the double denotative potency. Exactly in the same manner, the word ‘dharma’ may be used, indirectly or figuratively, in the sense of ‘that which produces dharma’; and thus the single denotation of the word being enough to explain its double signification and usage, we can have no justification for assuming the twofold denotation.

Such in brief, is the reasoning propounded by the Logicians' or Rationalists.

Dharma is supersensnous—i.e. it cannot be perceived by means of any organa of perception, except by Yogis.

Dharma is destructible by the experiencing of the last item, of happiness. In as much as Dharma is an effect, it must come to an end; nor can anything be destroyed without adequate cause; hence its destruction being sure, it would continue so long as its results would be appearing. The results of Dharma are such as can be experienced, in some cases, during thousands of years; and under the circumstances, if such a Dharma were to be destroyed by its very first result, there would be nothing left to produce the remaining factors of its result; nor is it possible for Dharma to be destroyed in parts; as it is an absolutely impartite entity. It is for these reasons that Dharma is held to be destructible by the last item of happiness resulting from it.

Dharma is also destroyed by True Knowledge. Some people hold Dharma to be absolutely indestructible; but for these people there could be no Final Deliverance; as there would be no end of Dharmas and Adharmas (and hence of the results of these in the shape of worldly experiences).

It is produced by the contact of the Man with the internal organ—because it is a specifie quality of the Self, like pleasure &c. Then again, Dharma is produced by such means as pure thoughts and determinations,—i.e. such thoughts and ideas as are free from deceit, hypocrisy &c.

With regard to the different castes and conditions of men there are distinct means of accomplishing Dharma. The ‘castes’ are the Brāhmaṇa, the Kṣattriya, the Vaiśya and the Śūdra. The ‘conditions’ are those of the ‘Student’. the ‘Householder’, the ‘Recluse’ and the ‘Renunciate’. And with regard to each of these, Dharma is produced by such means as are prescribed for each by the scriptures.

Question: “Whence could we learn the means of accomplishing Dharma which is imperceptible by the senses?”

Answer: The cause of Dharma consists in the various' substances etc. etc., ‘Śruti’ (Veda) is that which is learnt, with due ceremony, only from the mouth of the Teacher, and is never written down and then learnt (from books);—‘Smṛti’ (Law) consists in the declarations of Manu and others. The Substances, Qualities and Actions laid down in these two—the Veda and the Law-books—are the general means of Dharma.

The author now proceeds to point out those means of accomplishing Dharma that apply in common to all men, of whatever caste and condition of life. (1) Faith in Dharma,—i.e., openness of mind in matters relating to Dharma. (2) Harm-lessness—i.e., determination never to do any barm to any living being; mere desisting from doing harm would only conduce to the unappearance of Adharma, and it would not produce any positive Dharma; but the determination to desist constitutes a positive virtue also, and being prescribed as such, would be conducive to Dharma. (3) Benevolence towards all beings—a kindly feeling towards them. (4) Truthfulness—saying what is absolutely true (5) Freedom from desire for undue possession—i.e., the determination that I shall never take anything belonging to another person, except in a way sanctioned by the scriptures and not the mere negative action of not taking anything belonging to another. (6) Freedom from lust—determination to avoid being too much addicted to sensual pleasures (7) Purity of Intentions—when an action is done with pure intentions it conduces to Dharma. (8) Absence of anger—determination to renounce anger. (9) Bathing. (10) Use of purifying substances—i.e., the constant use, on stated occasions, of such purifying substances as the seasamum seed and the like. (11) Devotion to the Deity—i.e., to any one of the Deities spoken of in the Vedas. (12). Fasting—determination to eat anything on such days as the Ekādaśī and the like. (13) Eon-neglect (of duties)—i.e., the performance of the daily and occasional duties without fail. All these are the duties or virtues pertaining in common to all men.

(1) Performing of sacrifices—i.e., the offering of sacrifices and the pouring of oblations. (2) Study—of the Veda. (3) Charities—i.e., the determination to transfer to the possession of another person something belonging to oneself; as Charity is a virtue for a Śudra also, the form of charity that is meant here is that which is given at sacrifices and such other occasions. These are the duties pertaining to the three higher castes.

The special duties pertaining to the Brahmaṇa are next described:—(1) Receiving of gifts—i.e., from duly qualified persons. (2) Teaching. (3) Officiating at sacrifices. These belong to the Brāhmaṇa alone; as he can perform Dharma by; means of the wealth acquired by these means only. (4) Due performance of the rites and ceremonies prescribed for caste—the forty-eight purificatory rites duly performed make the Brāhmaṇa fit for the performance of the Vedic rites and ceremonies; and as such become conducive to Dharma (acquired by such rites and ceremonies).

The special duties belonging to the Kṣattriya are these—(1) Proper care of the people under him—i.e., the due protection of such of his people as are good and law-abiding. (2) Punishing of criminals—i.e., the inflicting of due punishment prescribed in the scriptures upon the wicked among his people. (3) Not to fly from battles—i.e., continuing to fight till victory is attained or he is killed. (4) The performance of the rites and ceremonies necessary for the Kṣattriya.

Of the Vaiśya, the specific duties are:—(1) buying—the taking of something belonging to another person after giving due value for it. (2) Selling—giving to another person; something belonging to himself after receiving due value for it. (3) Agriculture—the sowing of seeds in well-tilled soil, and the transplanting of seedlings. (4) Tending of cattle—the proper care of cows, goats, sheep and other useful animals. These are the specific duties of the Vaiśya, as for him it is only the wealth acquired by these means that can rightly help in the due performance of his religious duties.

Of the Śūdra, the specific duty consists in subservience to the three higher castes; and his religious rites are performed without mantras.

The author next proceeds to describe the duties pertaining to the various conditions of life. For the student living at the house of his Teacher &c. The proper ‘teacher’ is one who initiates his pupil and then teaches him the Veda with all its subsidiaries and esoteric explanations; and for the student living (as a boarder) at the house of such a Teacher, the duties laid down in the scriptures are—(i) Attendance upon the teacher—i.e., serving him in many ways; (2) Attendance on the fire—i.e., daily offering of oblations into it; (3) Fetching of fuel—from the forest, for the sake of the sacrificial fire; and (4) Living on alms.

The duties of the Householder are next described. A student while he is learning the Veda leads a life in which he keeps certain observances and follows certain rules of life and conduct; and when he has finished his studies he renounces these vows and restrictions; and it is such a person who is called the ‘Vidyāvratasnātaka’ (who has closed the religious life of the student by having taken the ‘Final Bath’); and it is such a person who on taking a wife becomes a ‘Householder’; and for him the duties prescribed are—(A) Morning and evening offering of the five ‘great sacrifices’ by means of the wealth acquired by such methods as the Śālīna and the Yāyāvara. When a man receives from the person who comes to make a gift to him, only so much as fills a certain vessel and is enough for his food for one or three days, this is called the ‘Śālīna’ method of livelihood; and when he does not receive gifts from any definite person, bub begs his living from house to house, in due rotation, this is called the ‘Yāyāvara’ method; and the Dharma of the Householder is duly accomplished by his performing in the morning and in the evening, the five great sacrifices with what he acquires in the aforesaid manner; these ‘great sacrifices’ are—(1) Sacrifice to animals—i.e., making of offerings meant to be eaten by animals; (2) Sacrifice to men—attending upon and feeding of guests; (3) Sacrifice to divine beings—in the shape of Homa; and (4) Sacrifice to the Fathers—performance of the Śrāddhas; and (5) Sacrifice to Brahman—regular study and recitation of the Veda. (B) The taking or kindling of the Ekāgni Fire—also called the ‘Aupāsanika Fire’ at the time of marriage; and the offering, in accordance with his capacity, into that Fire, of the Pākayajñas—i.e., such sacrifices as the ‘Aṣṭakā’ (performed on. the eighth day of some months), the ‘Pārvaṇa’ (performed on the day on which the moon is absolutely invisible), the ‘Caitrī’ (performed on the fullmoon day in the month of Caitra), the ‘Āśvayujī’ (performed on the full-moon day of the month of Āśvina), and such others as are laid down as absolutely necessary, and also the performing of such sacrifices as the ‘Agnyādheya’—i.e., the laying or kindling of the fire by the Brāhmaṇa, at spring-tide—, the Haviryajñas—the sacrifices of the Darśapūrṇamāsa, the Cāturmāsya, the Āgrāyaṇa and the like,—and the ‘Agniṣṭoma,’ sacrifices—viz., the seven Soma sacrifices named ‘Ukthya,’ ‘Ṣoḍaśin,’ ‘Vājapeya,’ ‘Atirātra,’ ‘Āpta’ and ‘Aryamā.’ (C) Avoidance of sexual intercourse except at stated times is also conducive to Dharma; and the begetting of children is conducive to Dharma as declared in the Veda—‘by means of the son one wins desirable worlds.’

The duties of the ‘Recluse’ are next described. It is laid down that the student may retire into the forest on the very day that he may like to do so; hence the student, without passing into the life of the Householder, can become a Recluse all at once; but some people pass through the intermediate state of the Householder before retiring into the forest; and for both kinds of Recluse, the following duties are laid down: Wearing of the bark of trees and skins only, the non-shaving of hair and beard &c., and the non-paring of nails; living upon only wild fruits and roots,—and that also only those that may be left after the offerings have been made into the fire, and the guests have been duly fed. A person who having performed the Prājāpatya sacrifice makes a gift of all his belongings, takes the sacrificial fire into himself and leaving to his wife the care of his son goes away as a Recluse—for him there are no offerings, and no serving of guests. But one who retires into the forest taking with him his wife and the sacrificial fire, for him it is laid down that he should live upon the remnant left after the performance of sacrifices and the serving of guests.

The duties of the Renunciate are next described. With regard to the life of Renunciation also there is no such hard and fast rule that it can be entered only by a man who has passed through the other three states; in fact even one in the earliest stage of the student,—or even a Householder,—if he is endowed with strong faith and due earnestness, he can—betake himself to that life; and when entering this life, the man takes the vow of unstinted benevolence towards all beings; renouncing all such actions as are performed with personal motives, he remains firm in the observance of all internal and external duties of Yama and Niyama. ‘Yama' consists in Harmlessness, Truthfulness, Freedom undue Possession, Celibacy and Non-acceptance of gifts, as laid down by Patañjali in his Yoga-Sūtras (11-30); and ‘Niyama’ consists in the Keeping of Observances, Cleanliness, Contentment, Study, Contemplation of the God-head, as laid down by Patanjali in his Sūtras (11-32). The author of the Nyāyabhāṣya (PP. 220-21) has laid down special duties for each of the four conditions of life. When the person is careful in the observance of these rules of life, he acquires the true knowledge of all the six categories, and then tries to attain ‘Yoga,’ which is a particular state of meditation that brings about the knowledge of the Self. This constitutes the Dharma of the Renunciate.

The author proceeds to show in what manner these are conducive to Dharma:—When the duties detailed above are performed with the purest of intentions, without any regard to personal gain in the form of riches or wealth, then they bring about the mind-?oul [mind-soul?] contact, which brings about Dharma.

When the man finds himself daily hampered by pain, he, in due time comes to the conclusion that objects of the world are the sole source of all pain; and thus he becomes disgusted with the objects; and desiring a cessation of pain, the only unfailing means that he has is the realisation of the true nature of his Self. And this realisation is brought about by meditation. Knowing this, the man gives up all actions that have a personal end in view, and gives himself up to meditation; but finding that living among men in a village stands in the way of proper meditation, he relinquishes the village and other haunts of men and goes away into the forest; there having purified himself by the internal and external rules of life, he acquires Dharma by the practice of meditation which tends to the cessation of his troubles. By constant practice he goes on progressing towards higher and higher stages of meditation during a number of lives, till during his last life on earth, he attains to i that stage of perfect meditation which cannot be disturbed by the slightest notion of duality (i.e., he thinks of nothing else). In ordinary experience we find that when we are thinking very intently on an object, we become so absorbed in it that even very attractive objects fail to attract us; as for instance an archer having his mind fixed by practice on the arrow, does not notice the king who may pass by him. Says Patanjali: ‘The controlling of the functioning of the mind follows from exercise and dispassion’ (Yoga-Sūtra 1-12). When in this manner meditation has reached the most perfect state, there appears a full cognition of the true character of Self. Say the Sāṃkhyas—‘Thus it is that by the practice of truth wisdom is attained, which is complete and incontrovertible (and hence) pure, and absolute; (by means of which the idea is obtained that) I am not, naught is mine and I do not exist’ (Sāṅkhyakārikā 64). It is for this reason then that the Renunciate who desires the true knowledge of Self takes to the performance of Yogic practices.

Objection: “A knowledge is always found to lead to the attainment of the object known; and hence the knowledge of Self obtained from the mere teaching of a teacher would make the true nature of the Self attained; what then would be the use of seeking a direct perception of it through Yogic practices?”

Reply: Not so; as an indirect means can never bring about a direct perception.

In reality the Self is neither the doer nor the enjoyer; it is wholly indifferent. And it is only when it becomes connected with such limitations as those of the body and the sense-organs, that it comes to have such notions, as ‘I’ and ‘mine,’ of its being the doer and the enjoyer; and such notions cannot but be regarded as false; as they represent things as what in reality they are not. From these notions of ‘I’ and ‘mine’ follow an affection for the pleasant, and aversion to the unpleasant thing; these affections and aversions give rise to activity and cessation form activity; thence follow Dharma and Adharma; and this lands the Self into the cycle of birth and rebirth. This has been thus declared by the Bauddhas: ‘In the ever-existing Self, the idea of difference comes in when there is a distinction made between the I and the not-I; thence arise affection and aversion; and it is as affected by these two that all conditions are brought into existence.’

That every Self in earthly life is under the influence of beginningless tendencies and impressions, and as such is by its very nature as it were ‘bound’—is a directly perceptible cognition that has a very firm hold on the minds of the people. The knowledge of Self, however, that is acquired by mere verbal teaching has but a momentary existence, and is not tested and found compatible with actual experience, and is indirect. An idea that has at least the semblance of being a direct cognition can never be set aside by that which at its best is only indirect. For instance, even though all the other means of knowledge might indicate to a mm that sugar is sweet, yet if his organ of taste happen to be perverted, making the sugar taste bitter to him, he would never be able to get rid of this idea, and the consequent dislike for the object.

Hence with a view to acquire the direct knowledge of Self, it becomes necessary to have recourse to meditation; and when meditation has reached the perfect stage, tne true nature of the Self, preclusive of all notions of its being the deer or the enjoyer, becomes distinctly cognisable; and as with regard to one and the same object Knowledge and Ignorance are contradictory and mutually exclusive, there comes about a cessation of all ideas of ‘I’ and ‘mine’; and when this stage is reached the phenomenal world, even though existing, ceases to affect that Self. This is thus described by the Sāṅkhyas,—‘Possessed of this true knowledge, the Soul, as a spectator at leisure, at ease and pure, free from all taint of Rajas and Tamas, beholds Nature which has now retired from its seven forms (Dharma, Knowledge Dispassion, Power, Adharma, Ignorance, Absence of dispassion and Absence of Power) on account of her prolific fruition (tending to bring about experiences to the Soul), under the force of true wisdom’ (Sāṅkhyakārikā 65).

Though the delusive tendencies of the Self are beginningless, and true knowledge has beginning in time, yet the latter sets aside the former; as in the perception of truth lies the greatest strength of the intellect.