Special position and Political significance of the Sacrifice

The sacrifice was a well organized religious practice at the time of the Brāhmaṇas. The Brāhmaṇa texts give us a conformable and conduced history of the sacrifice in their own way. In course of the expansion of the arena of the sacrifices some new lines in response to the social concern were added to the mainstream. The most important one is inclination towards giving importance to royal and kingship corners.

The sacrifice is considered as an indispensible means of gaining victory. It is a means of attaining the possessions and other ends, and of maintaining the right order in the universe. Initiation to the sacrificial rites is considered in the Brāhmaṇa text as a second birth of the sacrificer^[1]. Thus the performance of sacrifices makes a man twice-born (dvija). It is also recorded in the Brāhmaṇa text that sacrifice leads one to the world of heaven. Thus, “he who has sacrificed shares the world of bliss”^[2]. Not only the mortal beings, but even the Gods also attained their divine glory and heavenly status by means of sacrifice. Even it is said that the creation of the world also lies in the sacrifice.

In ancient time, monarchy was the most common form of government. The term ‘Rājan’ has been repeatedly mentioned in the Ṛgveda. Names of some kings are also found in the Ṛgveda: such as, the king ‘Citra’ living near the river Sarasvati^[3]. The first king was elected, but for that we cannot bear the idea that kingship was elective in nature. The Aitareya Brāhmaṇa records such a story about the origin of kingship or monarchy. Once upon a time there was a war between the Demons and the Gods. The Gods were being constantly defeated by the Aśuras in every direction. Gods, therefore, decided to survey with the situation. At that time there was no king among the Gods. After analyzing the situation, the Gods came to the conclusion that as they have no kings, they were being defeated by the asuras again and again. So, they decided to elect a king. Then they elected the king soma as their king and with the guidance of king Soma they (Gods) subdued the asuras and conquered all the directions^[4]. The king is the pivot of social and political organization. A state without a king faces lots of chaos and disorder. There is a frequent reference to the “law of fishes” in the Rāmāyana and also in the Manusmṛti^[5].The “law of fishes” is a metaphorical way describing the condition of anarchy in a state. If there is no political leader in a state, the stronger and more powerful individuals and groups grab the weaker ones, just as the bigger fish swallows the smaller one.

The Aitareya Brāhmaṇa also contains a story of the election of a king from amongst themselves by the Gods. It mentions about the great consecration of Indra^[6]. Indra is considered as one of the most prominent among the Vedic gods. All the Gods along with Prajāpati decided that they should anoint Indra to kingship. Indra is generally declared as the most vigorous, the most strong, the most valiant, the most perfect, who carries out best any work. Therefore, they (Gods) installed Indra to kingship. Then Indra was made to ascend the throne. After ascending the throne, Indra delivered a speech indicating his power. The Gods thought that Indra will not be able to perform any heroic work unless his (Indra) royal power was publicly proclaimed. Therefore, they (Gods) announced Indra as the great king. They considered his assumption of office as signifying the birth of military power, of the ruling caste, of the master of all living beings, of the destroyer of demons and the protector of dharma. This account shows the great significance of sacrificial ritual attached in the Brāhmaṇa text. The great consecration of Indra is a form of consecration which is used to anoint a Kṣatriya. It is a ceremony which indicates the political power of a king. There are historical references to numerous ancient kings who have performed this kind of ceremony^[7]. A Kṣatriya who is consecrated with Aindra Mahābhiṣeka conquers all conquerors, knows all the worlds, becomes superior to all kings, gains renown and majesty, becomes selfcreated and self ruled. Thus, here we find an explanation of the acquisition of power through the anointment or consecration.

The above parables clearly mention that the ancient Indian Kingship arose out of a military necessity and that elected monarch should be a capable general whose leadership should have to be recognized by all. Though the above passage mentions that during emergency the king was being elected by the subjects, but for this we cannot directly came to the point that in ancient time kingship was elective in character. The Brāhmaṇa text clearly mention about the hereditary kingship. In the Ṛgveda also the kingship is said to have been hereditary. “The kingship is known to have passed from the father to the son for at least four generations among the Triṣṭus and for a longer period among the Purus”^[8]. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa a story is recorded of the Sṛñjaya king known as Duṣṭaritu Paumsāyana whose kingdom was inherited by him ten generations continuously^[9] (daśapuruṣa rājyaṃ). Therefore, it can be determined that the monarchy was first elective in nature, but it had become hereditary long before the later Vedic period.

The Aitareya Brāhmaṇa^[10] mentions about eleven types of monarchy resembling to eleven types of territories as follows:

1. Rājya;
2. Sāmrājya;
3. Bhaujya;
4. Svarājya;
5. Vairājya;
6. Parameṣṭhya;
7. Rājya;
8. Mahārājya;
9. Adhipatya;
10. Svavasata and 
11. Athiṣṭhatva.

Keith^[11] has given the translation of the eleven types of sovereignty as follows:

1. Rājya means kingship;
2. Sāmrājya is overlordship;
3. Bhaujya means paramount rule;
4. Svarājya is self rule;
5. Vairājya means sovereignty;
6. Parameṣṭhya is Supreme authority;
7. Rājya means kingship;
8. Mahārājya is great kingship;
9. Adhipatya is suzerainty;
10. Svavasata means Supremacy and
11. Athiṣṭhatva is Pre-eminence.

Some of these denominations such as kingship, self rule and others bespeak about kingship and some other terms like ‘Mahārājā’ ‘Adhipatya’ and others suggest paramount sovereignty. Numerous sacrifices were performed for the attainment of different types of kingship and sovereignty. As some sacrifices have a purely political end in view, such as-Rājasūya, Vājapeya, Aśvamedha, Bṛahaspatisava, Sautrāmanī, Puruṣamedha and others. A ruler becomes Rājā by performing the Rājasūya sacrifice; whereas the performer of the Vājapeya becomes Samrāt, Svarāt by Aśvamedha and Virāt by Puruṣamedha. Some kings become great conquerors who celebrated their victories by performing sacrifices like Vājapeya and Aśvamedha which were the two principal ceremonies. The Aśvamedha sacrifice is to be performed by one who wants to be the king of kings and Vājapeya by one who wants to become an emperor or Samrāt. These sacrifices symbolize the degree of success achieve in realizing their ambitions.

According to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, “one becomes Rājā or king by performing the Vājapeya sacrifice; by performing the Vājapeya sacrifice one becomes a Samrāt. Rājya is of a lower order, Sāmrājya is of a superior order. A Rājā or king longs to be an emperor (Samrāt). The emperor never desires to become a king because Rājya or kingship is inferior and Sāmrājya or emperorship is supreme sovereignty”^[12]. Therefore the position of Samrāt is higher than that of a Rājā or king. One should not execute the Rājasūya sacrifice after executing the Vājapeya sacrifice, as it would be regarded as a decline or subsidence like one who is an emperor wants to be a king^[13]. Thus according to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa it can be said that the Vājapeya is a greater sacrifice than that of Rājasūya sacrifice. However, in the later Vedic period, the Vājapeya obtained the higher rank than the Rājasūya, as it is believed that by performing the Rājasūya one secures the imperial position, while by performing of the latter, one attains to mere royalty.

In the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sutra^[14] it is recorded that the Rājasūya sacrifice may be executed by a king who is yet to performed the Vājapeya sacrifice. Thus according to the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sutra and Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, the Vājapeya sacrifice is regarded as supreme than Rājasūya sacrifice. But it is not mentioned in both the text that the Rājasūya must be performed before the Vājapeya.

The Rājasūya is a ceremony for the Kṣatriyas or military class, where the Vājapeya is sacrifice for both the classes i.e. for the Brāhmaṇas and the Kṣatriyas.

Those rulers who were not satisfied with ‘Rājya’ and ‘Sāmrājya’ but desired to attain unrivalled foremost lordship known as ‘Sārvabhauma’ has to perform the Aśvamedha sacrifice. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa it is mentioned that the great king Pṛthu who is described as the first emperor was installed by the mighty sages on the celebration of his Rājasūya sacrifice. After having subdued his all enemies, he extended (prathita) his empire, for which he was known Pṛthu. Protecting his subjects from every sort of wound and injuries (kṣatat), Pṛthu proved himself to be true ḳsatriya. In his kingdom men lived free from fear and diseases. When Pṛthu went to the sea, its waves become condensed; the mountains opened a way for him. Gods, asuras, sages, ordinary men, animals’ trees and mountains declared him to be their emperor, protector, delighter, savior and father. In the great epic of Mahābhārata it is mentioned that during Pṛthu’s reign the earth produced crops without being cultivated. Every leaf of the trees produced honey; every cow also gave plenty of milk. After his coronation, which is performed by Viṣnu, Indra and other lokapālas, the earth came incarnate to him with a tribute of gems and jewels, the rivers and the mountains gave him inexhaustible wealth. Horses, cars, elephants and moon came in to existence as soon as he thought of them. Viṣnu himself, who approved his power also entered in his body. Therefore, the entire universe worshipped Pṛthu^[15].

In the Vedic age the king occupies a very significant position. The chief duty of the king is to protect his subjects from all dangers and calamities and to maintain the law and order in a state. It is also the duty of the king to appoint the ministers, priests and other office holders including the superintending of the different departments. The Atharvaveda gives us a few glimpses of the characteristics of a good administration. One of the hymn of the Atharvaveda states that-“the king defends his kingdom by tapas (fervour) and brahmacārya (Vedic studentship)^[16], which shows that the effort and self-restraint are the qualities of the king, with which the king is expected to rule. As noted earlier, in the rituals of the coronation, the king has been equated with Indra, the god of war and also with the Varuṇa, the judge of the gods. This identification of the king with Varuṇa and Indra glimpses that the king is also a judge and a supreme commander in war.

In the early Vedic age, the kingship is regarded as a secular and popular institution. The king is regarded as the most important need in those days for the destruction of the enemies and protection of the people. But in the Brahmanical age, the institution of kingship associated with various rituals like–Rājasūya, Vājapeya, Aśvamedha and others. These rituals actually give a sacred character to the institution of kingship. Thus, it can be said that attainment of various types of royal power lays on the performance of numerous rituals or sacrifice.

In the Vedic age the sages perform the sacrifice for the welfare and development of the nation. They also advice the king to execute sacrifice for all round development and prosperity. The king performs sacrifices with royal splendor and temperament to destroy the malicious foes^[17]. These sacrifices help the king to earn the favours of gods named Sāvitṛ and Soma and of all the beings and will become the refuge of all the subjects’.^[18]. By performing the sacrifice the king aspires to become as indomitable like Indra, the king of gods. Thus, it is stated in the Ṛgveda Saṃhitā-“I have no enemies, the enemies have been slain by me, I have become the sovereign king in my state defeating the antagonists, I have established and solicited my position amongst all the beings and subjects of my kingdom”^[19].

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa -III/2/1/40-“Yo yajñājjāyate tasmādapi rājanyayaṃ vā vaiśyaṃ vā brāhmaṇa ityeva bruyāt brāhmaṇo hi jāyate|”

[2]:

Ibid -III/6/2/15 “Tasmādāhu Punyaloka ijana iti|”

[3]:

Ṛgveda-VIII/21/18–“Citra id rājā rājakā idānyake yake sarasvatīmanu|”

[4]:

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa–I/3/3 “Te devā avrūvan arājatayā vai no jayanti rājānaṃ karavāmahā iti tathehi. Te somaṃ rājānamakarurvan. Te somena rājñā sarvā diśo’jayan|”

[5]:

Rāmāyaṇa, Ayodhyā kāṇḍa-LXVII/31—
“Narājake janapade svakaṃ bhavati kasyacit|
Matsyā iva janā nityaṃ bhakṣayanti parasparaṃ ||”
Manu-saṃhitā VII/20—
“Yadi na pranayedrājā daṇḍaṃ dandyeṣvatindritah|
Śule matsyānivābhakshyan durbalān balavattarāḥ||”

[6]:

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa–VIII/12

[7]:

Ibid-VIII/15

[8]:

Altekar, A.S, The State and Government in Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass, 1992, Page-81

[9]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa -XII/9/3/1-13

[10]:

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa-VIII/15

[11]:

Basu, Jogiraj, India of the age of the Brāhmaṇas, Sanaskrit Pustak Bhandar, Kolkata, 1969, Page-87.

[12]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa–V/1/1/3-“Rājā vai rājasūyeneṣṭvā bhavanti, samrād vājapeyena| Avaraṃ hi rājyaṃ paraṃ hi sāmrājyaṃ| kāmayate vai rājā samrād bhavituṃ; na samrāt kāmayate rājā bhavituṃ||”

[13]:

Ibid -IX/3/4/8–“Vājapeyeneṣṭvā na rājasūyena yajetā pratyavarohaḥ sa yathā samrāt san rājā syāt tādŗk tat|”

[14]:

Kātyāyana-śrauta-sūtra-XV/1/1/2

[15]:

Gonda, J, Ancient Indian kingship from religious point of view, Leiden E.J.Brill, 1966, Page-130.

[16]:

Atharva-veda-XI/5/17-“Brahmacaryena tapasā rājā rāṣṭraṃ vi rakṣati|”

[17]:

Ṛgveda-X/174/2-“Abhibṛtya sapatnānbhi yā na arātayaḥ | Abhipṛtanyantaṃ tiṣṭābhi yo na iraṣyati ||”

[18]:

Ibid-X/174/3-“Abhi tvā devaḥ sabitābhi abībṛtat | Abhi tvā viśvā bhutanyabhībarto yathāsani ||

[19]:

Ṛgveda-X/174/5—
“Asapatnaḥ sapatnahābhirāṣṭro viṣāsahiḥ |
yathāhameṣāṃ bhutānāṃ virājāni janasya ca ||”