Part 2.1.3 - Concept of Nakṣatras

[Full title: Sources of Light in the Literature (3): Nakṣatras]

The system of Nakṣatras form the substratum on which Jyotiḥśāstra atleast of the Veda and Vedāṅga period rests. The term Nakṣatra appears in the literature as stars in general and also as lunar mansions.

As stars in general

The term Nakṣatra is applied to stars in general in Ṛgveda-saṃhitā III. 54.19, VII. 86.1, other terms applied to stars in the early literature are ‘stṛ’, ‘ṛkṣa’ or rocanā.^[1] Specified by their bright appearance in the sky stars can be related to the words stṛ^[2] or rocanā^[3] which is not the case with the word Nakṣatra which is of obscure origin and shows divergence of opinion in its derivation.^[4]

The term Nakṣatra appears distinguished from the stars in Taittirīya-saṃhitā 7.5.25 which explains Nakṣatra as Rūpa (form) and Tārakā or stars as Asthi (bone) of the sacrificial horse.

Sūrya is addressed as a Nakṣatra (m) in Ṛgveda-saṃhitā VI. 67.6, finds a separate mention along with the Nakṣatras (Ṛgveda-saṃhitā III. 54.19) and also is contrasted from the Nakṣatras in a later hymn of Ṛgveda-saṃhitā and in other Saṃhitās (Ṛgveda-saṃhitā I.50.2, Atharvaveda XIII.2.17, XX. 47.14).

As lunar mansions

Compared to Sūrya or any other heavenly body, Candra shares an elaborate and somewhat exclusive relationship with the Nakṣatras in the literature. As far as the cultural ideology and its implementation is concerned, Nakṣatras appear as stars or star clusters on the path of the Moon. This sense already appears in the Saṃhitās.^[5] They being 27 or 28 in connection with the lunar month is recognized, the expression arise in the form of a marriage union.^[6]

The arrangement of Nakṣatras

The names^[7] of a few probable ones occur in the Ṛgveda-saṃhitā but the number fixed as 27^[8] with the complete list of their names, order of appearance and the deities ascribed to them appear in and after the Yajurveda.^[9] Though the record occurs in Taiṭṭirīya and other Saṃhitās yet much prior to them and in the time of the Ṛgveda, the Nakṣatra system must had been a functioning unit in the culture in connection with the sacrificial and other activities.^[10]

The shapes and colours of the star clusters^[11] visible in the sky may be attributed the stimulus for the names of the Nakṣatras occurring from prior lingo,^[12] or due to their coinciding with the natural phenomenon,^[13] yet few others are named after the figures and the perceptive qualities of objects on earth appearing as their mirror images in the sky.^[14] But certain characteristics attached to Nakṣatras in naming them probably generated from a thought process integrated since the earliest development of the culture^[15] and is seemingly improbable to unwind.

The process of fitting the order of Nakṣatras arising in a natural succession on the path of the Moon to their counter parts on the Earth supposedly resulted due to an exchange from both the celestial and terrestrial factual as well as ideological quarters and somewhat stretching of the cosmic facts displayed in the concepts like the form of Nakṣatra Prajāpati visible in the sky.^[16] Also the presiding deities of Nakṣatras mentioned in the Saṃhitās are exclusively Vedic^[17] their anthropomorphism an independently Indian observation and retained their place in the later development.^[18]

Dikshit mentions the seed of auspiciousness or inauspiciousness of the Nakṣatras lying in the concept of Muhūrtas (proper times to perform acts).^[19] The system of Nakṣatras is connected to Muhūrtaśāstra and is utilized for the performance of prescribed actions throughout the literature. Nakṣatras were considered important for Agnyādhāna^[20] (consecration of the sacred fires), offerings were made on certain nakṣatras termed as male.^[21] Months were known from the names of Nakṣatras (Tai Saṃ. ii.2.10.1, Pañcaviṃśa-brāhmaṇa V.9.1), names of Nakṣatras were employed for Full Moon or New Moon (Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa ii.6.3.11,Kauṣitaki-brāhmaṇa i.3, iv.4), Full Moon on certain Nakṣatra appears recorded (Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa 6.2.2.18) and prescribed for certain act (Taittirīya-saṃhitā 7.4.38). A Nakṣatreṣṭi is also mentioned in Tai Brā.III.1.

The Bṛhat Saṃhitā enumerates actions to be performed on various types of Nakṣatras.^[22] In relation with marriage Gobhila prefers an auspicious Nakṣatra.^[23] The Ātharvaṇa-Jyotiṣa (Nakṣatra section, verse 4) & Vaikhānasa-Ssmārta-Sūtra (IV.14) refer to a pattern of Nakṣatras in connection with the Nakṣatra at birth.

Nakṣatra as divisions of the Ecliptic

A third meaning of Nakṣatra as divisions of the Ecliptic appear in the literature especially for Astronomical purpose. The Sūryaprajñapti divides the Ecliptic by the sidereal month. The Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa records the positions of the Sun and the Moon at the Equinox and Solstices with reference to the Nakṣatras. In the Vedic literature, the Nakṣatra list began with Kṛttikā (which supposedly coincided with the Vernal Equinox)^[24] and in the classical Sanskrit period it (Vernal Equinox) coincided with Aśvinī.^[25] Apart from clear and ample references of above in the literature attempts have been made to mark the Nakṣatras at the Equinoxes and the Solstices and these expressions have been utilized as a sequel to fix the age of the Veda.^[26] The discovery of placing Mṛgaśirṣa (Orion) or Āgrahāyaṇa (as the commencement of the year) at the Autumnal Equinox^[27] gave an access to a still older system of Nakṣatras prior to the Kṛttikā list which began with Mṛgaśirṣa (Orion).^[28] These references about the Nakṣatra in relation with the Equinoxes and Solstices show that the initial point of the sphere of the Nakṣatras was a movable point in comparison to the point of Equinox (and thereby the Solstices) which is a fixed point. The records to this extent awards the literature the knowledge of Precession to some extent.^[29] Yet Precession which is an astronomical concept as also Nakṣatras being divided in twenty-seven equal parts of the ecliptic, these and such studies were perhaps not the aim of the culture but were preliminary steps to their astrological purpose of practical performance of prescribed actions on proper times.^[30] Thereby the Nakṣatra which marked the initial point of the sphere and which coincided with the Vernal Equinox was perhaps equally observed from an Astrological viewpoint. The passage of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa which indicates the position of Kṛttikā at the Vernal Equinox also specifies the characteristics of the Nakṣatara and thereby its utility to the sacrificer.^[31]

Some general observations from the above data in the literature related to the Nakṣatras can be derived as under:-

The formation of a Nakṣatra system and relating it to human actions exhibits the tendency of the culture

1) To connect the objects and activities of the sky or heaven and the Earth by means of study of characteristics of Nakṣatras.

2) To study the cosmic activity through the order of the Nakṣatras and introduce it to the activities of the culture.

3) To establish a practical connectivity to the Cosmos with the concept of Muhūrta (proper time) for sacrifices and other actions with the agency of the Sun, the Moon and the Nakṣatras.

The practical utility of the Nakṣatra System with ritual actions can be termed as a systematic attempt on part of the Vedic culture to establish a unity between man and cosmos through perceptible objects and means and thereby an actual or a concrete effort to connect the same in the Saṃhitā and the Brāhmaṇa period prior to the Upaniṣads which rely on the abstract notions of the Brahman and Ātman.

Perhaps some theory or else a germ of a theory related to this unity existed in the culture in the above period. Nakṣatras are mentioned as the abode of the gods.^[32] Stars in general and even Nakṣatras are mentioned as the lights of pious men who depart to the heavenly world.^[33] The Taittirīya Āraṇyaka 1.11.1.2 mentions the Saptarṣi’s (the seven sages). Atri and Agastya as being raised to stars. These and such statements occurring occasionally in the literature point out a purposeful connectivity between Nakṣatras, gods and men.

As far as the derivation of the term Nakṣatra goes the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa explains that one who performs sacrificial actions here goes to that (Nakṣatra) world^[34] thereby explaining the characteristics of Nakṣatra as a place obtained by those who perform sacrificial actions here. (in this world). Yāska derives the term Nakṣatra from √ Nakṣ ‘to obtain’ or ‘to go’ from the above statement in the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa.

The other derivation of the word Nakṣatra comes as a compound from the negative particle na plus Kṣatra meaning not a Kṣatra. Pāṇini VI. 3.75 derives it in this sense from Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa II.1.2.18.19. Kṣatra means dominion or power and therefore Nakṣatra or na plus Kṣatra means no dominion or no power. The word Kṣatra can be derived either from √ Kṣi to dwell, to rule, to decay or from √ Kṣar to move, to flow, to perish. Thus Nakṣatra would mean from √ Kṣi no dwell, no rule, no decay and from √ Kṣar no movement, no flow, no perish. The Tattvāmṛta commentary on the Sūrya Siddhānta 1.25 explains the word Nakṣatra as “na kṣarati na gacchatīti nakṣatram” in the sense that Nakṣatras have no movement. This meaning of Nakṣatra is nearer to Kṣar than Kṣi and thereby means no movement, no flow, no perish. Also Nakṣatra in this sense appears in many places in the early literature.^[35] Therefore Nakṣatra appears to be more nearer to the above sense of √ Kṣar specifying ‘no movement’ or ‘no perish’.

From the above derivations, it appears that Nakṣatras were considered by the culture as ‘without movement’ or ‘non perishable’ or in a more direct sense of Na plus Kṣatra as ‘powerless’ (objects or places). Ṛgveda-saṃhitā X.85.2 states that Soma (Moon)lies in or is placed in the lap of the Nakṣatras. To ‘lie in’ specifies a horizontal position, a position at rest on a supporting surface^[36] therefore Moon is deposited, situated or is at rest in the lap of the Nakṣatras. Also nakṣatrāṇi vai sarveṣāṃ devānāmāyatanam (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa XIV.3.2.) or a similar statement in the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa I.2.5.11. specify Nakṣatras as the abode of the gods and Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa further says that the knower of this abides. Again abide is to remain (in the same place) or to stay in or endure^[37] (with the gods).

Thereby Nakṣatras can be taken as non-movable or non-perishable residence or resting place of Moon, gods and (knower) mens. This is nearer to Pāṇini and Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa which explain Nakṣatra as a place with no dominion or power. Whereas the contrast in Nakṣ ‘to go’ or ‘to obtain’ by Yāska and Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa with Uṇādi suffix atran specifying ceaseless motion is applicable or related to the sacrificer or performer of prescribed actions who receives ceaseless motion due to the performance of actions and which land him or by aid of which, obtains the steady or stable stations termed as Nakṣatras.

Other important light forms are the Deities of light or the ‘Devatā’ which are the anthropomorphic forms of nature, the Grahas (Planets) which are of later origin and the universal and abstract light principle Brahman and its counterpart the Ātman.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Stṛ. (Ṛgveda-saṃhitā II. 34.2, IV. 7.3.), ṛkṣa (Ṛgveda-saṃhitā I. 24.10.).

[2]:

Stṛ in the sense of decking the sky is an Indo-European word. History of Dharmaśāstra V.1.p.496.

[3]:

Rocanā ‘the bright sky’ Apte, V.S.,, p.472.

[4]:

Vedic Index, p.409.

[5]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā X 85.2; Atharvaveda 14.1.2.

[6]:

Also Kāthaka. Saṃhitā. X. 19.1, Mahābhārata ix. 35.

[7]:

Tiṣya (Puṣya) in Ṛgveda-saṃhitā X. 64.8; Citrā. Ṛgveda-saṃhitā IV. 51.2; Revati Ṛgveda-saṃhitā IV.51.47.

[8]:

The 28th is Abhijit mentioned in Atharvaveda 19.7.2-5 and Maitrāyaṇī-saṃhitā II.13.20. Tai: Brā. I.5.2 marks it as a new comer where as Mahābhārata (Vanaparva III.230) mentions it as being dropped out.

[9]:

Taittirīya-saṃhitā IV..4.10.1-3; Kāṭhaka. Saṃhitā. 39.13; Tai Brā. I.5, III.1; Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa (Ṛgveda-saṃhitā) 25,26.

[10]:

History of Dharmaśāstra, Vol. V.1,p.509; Bhāratīya Jyotiṣaśāstra. p.52.

[11]:

‘Āśreṣā’ the embracer which fits the constellation, ‘Citrā’ meaning bright or ‘Śatabhiṣak’, having hundred stars. Vedic Index p.416.

[12]:

Punarvasu, Citrā, Maghā, Revati. Bhāratīya Jyotiṣaśāstra p. 57.

[13]:

Ārdrā, moist or wet, in solar connection with rain. History of Dharmaśāstra V.1. p.509.

[14]:

Hasta, the shape of hand or palm, Puṣya, the golden boat in the sky (Atharvaveda 5.4.4, 6.95.2); Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa 1.5.2.

[15]:

Niṣṭyā (Swāti) means ‘outcaste’ in Rg. VI. 75.19, X. 133.5; Śroṇā (Śravaṇa) means ‘lame’ (Ṛgveda-saṃhitā I.112.8); Mūla as ‘root’ or ‘foot’ Ṛgveda-saṃhitā X.87.10.

[16]:

Tai. Bra. I.5.2-7, Bṛhat-Saṃhitā (104.1-5); ‘The Nakṣatra Puruṣa cannot be made fit to the comtellations’. Hindu Astronomy.p.24.

[17]:

History of Dharmaśāstra, Vol. V.1., p.509.

[18]:

Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa (Ṛgveda-saṃhitā 25-27); Bṛhat-saṃhitā of Varāhamihira 97. 4-5; Bṛhat-saṃhitā of Varāhamihira 98.3

[19]:

Bhāratīya Jyotiṣaśāstra, p. 470.

[20]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa II. 1.2.

[21]:

Bṛhadāraṇyaka-upaniṣad VI.3.1. 63

[22]:

Bṛhat-saṃhitā of Varāhamihira 97. 6-11.

[23]:

Gobhila-Gṛhyasūtra. II.1.1.

[24]:

Kṛttikā marked the Vernal Equinox in circa 3100 B. C. Dikshit calculates this date from a verse in Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa (II.1.2.3). Bhāratīya Jyotiṣaśāstra) p.128.

[25]:

History of Dharmaśāstra, Vol. V. 1. p.507.

[26]:

Hindu Astronomy pp. 30-32.

[27]:

Orion p. 166, referring to Ṛgveda-saṃhitā X. 86.22.

[28]:

Vedic Chronology, Introduction p.5. A supposition of an pre-orion or Aditi period when the Vernal Equinox coincided with the constellation Punarvasu (around about 8000-5000 BC which was the period of migration of the surviving Āryans following the destruction of the original Arctic home by the last Ice age) also exists. ‘The Arctic Home in the Vedas’ in Samagra Lokmanya Tilak, Vol. II, p. 372.

[29]:

Hindu Astronomy, p.29. The knowledge was marked due to inaccurate length of the year and crude methods of fixing the solstices.

[30]:

Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa (Ṛgveda-saṃhitā) v.36.

[31]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa II. 1.2. 2-3.

[32]:

Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa I.2.5.11

[33]:

Taittirīya-saṃhitā 5.4.1.3, Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa VI. 5.4.8.

[34]:

Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa 1.5.2.10.

[35]:

Ṛgveda-saṃhitā I.50.2, II.34, IV. 7.3, X. 68.11.; Taittirīya-saṃhitā 7.5.25; Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa 2.7.18.3, This is also accepted by modern science. Basic concept of Nakṣatras, p. 25.

[36]:

Webster’s Dictionary p. 571.

[37]:

Webster’s Dictionary p. 2.