The Great Buddhist Emperors of Asia

by Shibani Dutta | 2018 | 86,618 words

This study deals with the patronage of Buddhism in Asia by the ruling powers and nobility. It further discusses in detail the development of Buddhism under the patronage of the royal dynasties in the religious history of Asia right from the time of 3rd century B.C. (i.e., the reign of Ashoka) to the reign of Kublai Khan in 13th century A.C....

Chapter 9 - King Parakkamabahu of Sinhala (Sri-Lanka) (1153 A.C.–1186 A.C.)

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More than 800 years have elapsed since the period of reign of Sinhala hero Parakkamabahu the great, yet his statue at Polannaruva taken the Shrilankan people back to the memory of their ancestors, and the entire humanity, to a saga of valour and victory. He was the most prominent King of ancient Sinhala. A scholar^[1] of Shrilankan history remarks, “In the history of Buddhism in Ceylon the period between the death of Vijayabahu and the ascendancy of Parakkamabahu 1 (1153 A.D. 1186 A.D) may be regarded as a dark chapter”. In him there was spiritualism of Devanampriya Tissa and bravery of Dutthagamani. During the reign of Parakkamabahu from the capital city of Polannaruva, he unified the three lesser kingdoms of the island. He was one of the last monarchs in Shrilankan history to do so. He oversaw the expansion and beautification of his capital, constructed extensive irrigation systems, reorganized the army of the country, reformed Buddhist practices, encouraged the arts and undertook military campaigns in South India and Burma. The adage “not even a little water that comes from the rain must flow into the ocean without being made useful to man” is one of his most famous utterances.

Parakkamabahu was born and brought up at the time when the whole country was torn and troubled by civil war and external aggression. The contemporary Sinhala country was divided into four states. Vikrambahu made Polannaruva his capital when he became the ruler of Rajrattha (Rajrastra). Manabharan, the father of Prakkamabahu was also called the governor Veerabahu. He became the king of Dakshin country (southern country). Likewise Ruhunu country was too divided between two brothers. The province of Dvadasajassak was captured by Kittisirimegha and the province of Atthakasahassak by Shrivallabha. These four states were not only autonomous but independent also. They were so cruel and barbaric to one another that there was always a kind of competition among them in the acts of cruelties and atrocities. They were so inhuman to their subjects that their administration may be compared to a sugarcane-crushing machine which reduced the sugarcane to mere trash after separating juice. The officials and ministers of these states were leaving all kinds of taxes on their subjects and exploiting them. Thus, the officials were openly looking the subjects. Robbers and thieves used to robe and kill the travellers. Viharas and other religious institutions were degraded morally and spiritually. Vikrambahu drove away monks from Viharas and snatched away their wealth and lands. Viharas and Sangharamas were turned into army barracks. The resident monks of Polannaruva had to run away with the relics of Lord Buddha to Ruhunu^[2] Province.

According to the chronicles of Shrilanka, Shrivallabha had two children a son named Manabharan and a daughter named Lilavati. Manabharan or Veerabahu who was the administrator of southern state had two daughters-Mitra and Prabhavati. A third child after these two daughters was a son named Parakkamabahu who became famous as Parakkamabahu, the great astrologers foretold that the prince would become a great warrior and a great victor. He would not be the emperor of only Sinhala country, but he may also rule entire India. After coming to know this prediction, the king of Polannaruva Vikramabahu sent a message to the effect that the child Parakkamabahu may be sent to him at Polannaruva. He assured that he would bring him up as his own son, for his own sons Gajabahu and Mahind were not capable of becoming rulers.

Some days after the birth of Parakkamabahu, his father Manabharan passed away. At that time his country was under the rule of Kittisirimegha while Shrivallabha had established his supremacy all over Ruhunu country. Kittisirimegha became the guardian of King Manabharan’s widow and his son. The queen along with her child went to Mahanaghul to live there. Manabharan, a son of Shrivallabha had married the elder sister of Prakkamabahu, Princess Mitra. Her mother queen Ratnavali opposed this marital relation. She opposed this tie on the ground that king Manabharan was neither of Aryan tradition nor of Kalinga royal dynasty to which her daughter belonged. She did not keep relations even with the Somavansiya Pandya tradition which Manabharan was the cousin of the princess. This proves that marital relations between cousins were permissible in the royal tradition of Sinhala.

Aryan tradition among the Sinhalese goes back to their coming from North India. Dravidian Kings from South India had very close relations with the royal dynasty of Sinhala country in the 12th century. They established marriage relations with the Cholas and Pandyan Dynasties A Pandyan Royal family used to call themselves^[3] as Somavansis.

Queen Ratnavali opposed for daughter’s matrimonial tie with a Somavansi prince. As her daughter claimed to belong to a Kalinga Royal lineage, she could not accept such a matrimonial tie. According to the marriage tradition of that period, a grandson of Vijaybahu and a son of Vikrambahu-II belonged to the Kalinga royal traditions whereas Prakkamabahu-I claimed in his inscription that he belonged to Iksque royal^[4] tradition from his grand-mother’s side.

It is said that Vikrambahu-II ruled for 20 years. If it is true, his regime might have lasted from 1131 A.C to 1152 A.C. After the death of Vikrambahu-II, his son Gajabahu-II became the king of Polannaruva. Compared to his father, Gajabahu was not so able a ruler. The southern state was ruled by King Kittisirimegha while Shrivallabha ruled Ruhunu. These two brothers attempted to throw Gajabahu out of throne. They made Gajabahu’s Vellakar forces inactive by giving them bribes. Both the brothers set out of their respective capitals towards Polannaruva. They sent their emissaries to Gajabahu stating that he should accept their supremacy. In consultations with his ministers King Gajabahu decided to fight with his adversaries who were more powerful. He decided to fight with his adversaries who were move powerful. He decided to fight his two enemies in two different fonts. He chalked out a game plan. If he was able to defeat one of them, the other would run away. Thinking in this line, he first faced Shrivallabha, the king of Ruhunu, in a brave and determined manner. Gajabahu, however, won the battle against the king of Ruhunu with great difficulty. King Shrivallabha had to return to his kingdom. Gajabahu’s general defeated Kittisirimegha on the other font. After the defeats on both the fronts, he never harboured any evil motive against Polannaruva state.

At the end of the civil war, these three states began feeding their idle forces. Quite naturally, a major part of income had to be spend on them. According to.Culavamsa. no development work was taken up during the rule of these three states. Nor any effort was made for the progress of Buddhism in Sinhala. Any kind of progressive mission of economic and spiritual development began for the first time in 1140 A.C. At that time Parakkamabahu was the ruler of southern states. Parakkamabahu left his birth-place Mahanaghur (Ruhunu) when he was a mere child. He went to his uncle Kittisirimegha (King of southern state) and began living in Sankhanay-Kathali-Hallegod (in Veligal Korle of Kaigal district). There Prince Parakkamabahu was imparted education by the teachers of his choice. He learnt language and literature, religion, politics, dance and music, sports and art of warfare from those choicest teachers. Kittisirimegha had no children, and he educated Parakkamabahu as he would have done in the case of his own son. He tried to groom him as an able administrator. After the death of Shrivallabha, the ruler of Ruhunu, his son Manabharan became the King. Just before this time, His chief queen Mitra gave birth to a son. Later on, his second queen Prabhavati also gave birth to a son who was named Kittisiri.

As Parakkamabahu grew up to 14-15 years, he nurtured many aims and aspirations in his mind. He knew it quite well that King Kittisirimegha would, under no circumstances, approve of his leaving southern country. So with the help of his companions and secret agents, he prepared a plan of leaving the capital. He was so enthusiastic to know the movements in Rajrattha province that he had to make a firm decision. Prince Parakkamabahu wanted to assess personally Gajabahu’s Military and other strength. He could have ascertained this by the espionage work of his trusted secret agents, but he himself wanted to see the state of affairs.

One night Parakkamabahu left the palace without the knowledge of his uncle. Despite police patrolling, he was able to come out of the town. Then he reached near Badealthali (Batalgod) near Pelivathu. His friends made a secret plan and he met them there in accordance with their plan. Batalgod was a border town in the southern state. A strategic and important defence camp under the command of General Sankha was located in that town. Parakkamabahu, accompanied by his close associates reached there early in the morning. As soon as Parakkamabahu reached there, the general came to know that the former had come without the permission of the king. He welcomed the prince with usual honour and made arrangements of his stay in his (general’s) own residence. He put up the companions of Parakkamabahu at different places in the camp so that they could not meet one another until the king gave some order on being well-informed about the incident Parakkamabahu, on the other hand, thought deeply over his own plan of action. After a good deal of consideration he gave some orders to his followers who literally carried them out. With a view to making his adventurous plan free from hurdles, Prince Parakkamabahu got general Sankha killed. The description^[5] of general Sankha’s assassination is given in Culavamsa.

“Culavamsa” is a historical record of the monarchs of Shrilanka. It covers a fairly long period of Shrilankan history. Culavamsa was compiled over many years by Buddhist monks. It is generally considered to be a sequel to Mahavamsa. With reference to the history of Shrilanka, Mahavamsa and Culavamsa are, sometimes, thought of as a single work.

In Culavamsa, Parakkamabahu has been described as a great warrior and victor and the greatest Sinhala king of the time. H.C Ray, an expert in Shrilankan history, has expressed a contradictory opinion regarding the character of Parakkamabahu. On the on one hand, he depicts him as a murderer of his general and on the other; he highlights the qualities of the prince as a brave warrior and a great administrator. According to Mr. Ray, no administrator may be called great in the true sense of the term. Almost all the notable administrators of the world achieved greatness only by assassination of their opponents. Of course, it is quite likely that there may be other reasons for their greatness. Many factors are to be taken into consideration for the assessment of the personality of a historical figure. We would do well to remember that the prince was only 14 to 15 years old when he murdered his general. An adolescent of this age feels great enthusiasm and courage to do something novel and adventurous and Prince Parakkamabahu is no exception. Moreover, he was the son of a great warrior. This act of assassination seems to leave no blemish on his greatness as a warrior.

After the assassination of general Sankha, a rumour spread among the people that Prince Parakkamabahu had rebelled against his uncle. The people were divided into two opposing camps. Some people sided with the prince while others who were loyal to the king began raising arms against the rebellious prince. Those who wanted to help Parakkamabahu advised him to attack Sankhanaya Kathali and arrest the administrator. With this end in view, he reached Padvarsunyakanda. But the prince changed his mind and sent a message to the king informing him that he had no enmity whatsoever with the king. He further intimated that he had no intention of establishing his rule in that region.

The prince left Batalgod for Siriyal in the east where he had to face his opponents. He somehow reached Buddhagam (Menikden) which was located at the foothills of Siriden (Nikulakand) mountains. Here to some of his opponents made a vain attempt to halt his march of victory. Parakkamabahu sent an invitation to Nagargiri Gokanna from Buddhagam stating that he might leave Gajabahu and join his side. Gokanna was the governor of Gajabahu and he was looking after the administration of Kalvapi (kallavair Kala Lake) district. Accepting the proposal of Parakkamabahu, Gokanna sent the rebel prince expensive presents. The prince stayed there for some time.

When Kittisirimegh came to know that Parakkamabahu had fled from the kingdom, he got terribly frightened. He did not intend to cause enmity between him and Gajabahu. He had no desire of dragging the southern state Rajrattha into war. In consultation with his ministers, Kittisirimegha decided to catch Parakkamabahu with the help of his forces. With this end in view, he sent a regiment of soldiers under the leadership of Mahind along with a commander named Manglar to capture Prince Parakkamabahu alive. Before the king’s forces reached there, the prince had already reached Saraggam (Selgam in Asigosipalle Siya Padu) Mahitil (Matle) district. After his futile attempt, the kings forces got themselves divided into several battalions and began a frantic search for the prince. It was all in vain. They could not capture the prince. Afterwards different battalions of soldiers came together again and started a joint search for finding out Parakkamabahu in the hills and valleys. The rebel prince faced the royal forces with great courage and determination. Despite the strict vigil of the royal forces, he ran away to Bodhigram (Bogambar, a place to the north east of Matle). The royal forces chased after him there too. He somehow escaped and entered into the Ranamber (Ranmure), a place in the Lankalaggal Mountains. He took rest for some days and determined to face the forces of his uncle king. He continued his march towards Ambavan (Ambor). He put up the camps of his rebel forces at Khorvapi to the west of Nalanda (Kirigam and Kirioruv). The camps were attacked at night and soldiers were caught. But at the break of dawn, the forces of parakkama entered Navagiris (Naivgal) mountain region. The forces of Kittisirimegha tried to lay a siege to entire mountain district but could not succeed. The rebel prince followed a different but opposite route of the chasing forces. He entered the territory of Gajabahu where they could not be chased further. Then again he entered Porogahalikhand (to the north-east of Nalanda) and in the forests of Udisiya Pattu of Langha and Laxanna block and hid themselves in the province of Gajabahu where they took rest for many days.

According to the narration of “Culavamsa. Gajabahu got frightened of Parakkamabahu’s entry into his territory. He not only sent him expensive presents but also invited him to Polannaruva. Prof H.C Ray does not believe in this statement of.Culavamsa”. He raises a pertinent question, “How could a king of such a vast provincial state like Rajrattha be afraid of young Prakkamabahu’s small rebel forces?” Prof Ray says that it might be a matter of diplomatic courtesy that Gajabahu seemed to have extended invitation to Parakkamabahu after listening to his entry into the lalter’s province^[6]. According to the scholars of Shrilankan history, Gajabahu was not a coward as it has been depicted in.Culavamsa. treatise. It is true that he was a relative of the prince. But it was unlikely that he volunteered to welcome, all of a sudden, a prince from a neighbouring territory. Of course, it was quite possible that Gajabahu might have thought that Parakkamabahu might have come to his territory in order to seek military help to fight against Kittisirimegha. Whatever might be the reason, Gajabahu did invite Parakkamabahu^[7] and on his reaching Polannaruva he himself welcomed the prince.

Parakkamabahu spent sufficient time at Polannaruva, for he was a guest in the royal palace. In fact he was a guest simply for show and even enjoyed the royal hospitality to the fullest extent. But he did not forget the secret purpose for which he had come to Gajabahu’s capital. He got himself acquainted with the local situation. In order to carry out his secret plan successfully, he established a support base by making relations with the ministers of the kingdom. He did not allow a single moment to go out of hand and mind. When he used to go for hunting in the nearby jungles and forests, he would ride on the back of fast elephants and passed through the streets of the host capital. But he pretended that the elephant dragged him forcibly to the castle of knights and the rich. Whomsoever he met on his way, he spoke in a frank manner with a view to familiarising himself with the local people and problems. He wanted to assess the loyalty of the people to their king. Even his secret agents did not sit idle. They remained busy moving from place to place gathering all sorts of information. Some of his agents were in the guise of merchants, musicians, magicians, doctors and even monks.

Parakkamabahu requested his mother to come there along with his younger sister Bhadravati. He planned to give his sister in marriage to Gajabahu. He was determined to gain the confidence of his host governor by hook or by crook. His secret agents collected all possible information about Gajabahu, especially his sources of income, food grains, military strength, arms and ammunition. They also gathered information regarding Gajabahu’s political and administrative tricks and trends of his political and military top bosses.

After a period of time, the prince felt that he would have to leave the host country, for Gajabahu had begun suspecting the guest’s motives. He sent his men to meet Gajabahu and convey to him the prince’s intention to leave the capital of Gajabahu. He expressed his desire to visit the capital again. Then one night Parakkamabahu left Polannaruva quietly. From there he went to Khajjarakvaddhaman Lake (perhaps to the north-east of Giritale Dambalvaiv) which was then in the Kanapaddhaudak and near Sudukand mountain ranges. He crossed the mountain ranges and reached Demtiygam before sunrise. His companions had already reached there. He met them at Mangal. Then the prince, along with his companions, entered into the village block. When the news of his arrival reached the southern country, the administrator of that country was quite happy. He sent his trusted diplomats to escort the prince home safely. But Parakkamabahu refused to go to his uncle’s house. Instead of going there, the prince put up his camps at Saraggam. Some people tried to persuade him to go his uncle’s house. Even a head monk of the Tapas Nikaya tradition and high officials of the king urged him to go to the king, but Parakkamabahu did not pay heed to any such request. All the efforts to bring back the prince to his uncle’s house were in vain. Then his mother queen Ratnavali went from Ruhunu to Sankhanayakthali and consulted Kittisirimegha. With the purpose of bringing her son back, she personally went to Saraggam. There she met her son, convinced him and took him back to Batalgod. From there, General Dev (successor to general Sankha) accompanied him to Sankhanayakthali and entrusted him to his uncle. Immediately after this incident, King Kittisirimegha passed away. After this, Prince Parakkamabahu himself became the king of the southern provincial state.

On taking over the reins of power of Southern country, Parakkamabahu, first of all, made the defence arrangements of border areas^[8]. He put up camp at strategic points, especially at the eastern region, where the borders of Gajabahu’s Rajrattha country met. Then he concentrated his efforts in increasing agricultural production. He prepared several schemes to improve the fertility of barren land, and implemented those schemes. He dug new lakes and ponds and provided additional irrigation facilities. Such novel developmental schemes initiated by Parakkamabahu continue to inspire the Sinhalese people even today. He used to say, “Don.t waste away a single drop of rain water and allow it to drain away into sea”. It was due to these schemes and projects that the southern country became more prosperous and self-sufficient in respect of food grains than other region of the country. He built up powerful armed forces for his future wars. He wanted to achieve victories in those wars with a definite aim in life. Ultimately, his armed forces enabled him to realise his childhood ambition of bringing the entire Sinhala country under one umbrella.

Under his agricultural development schemes, he constructed a dam on Jajjra River. He established a town named Parakkampur and glorified it as the new capital. It is located in the vicinity of modern Nuar-Hettipol. The old and small Panduvapi lake was deepened and extended. Later on, this beautiful lake was named as Parakkam- Samudra (sea). He built a new palace near his old royal palace and improved old palatial structures of the country.

Regarding the restructuring of southern state, “Culavamsa” opines, “There were two important political officials. For management of the defence forces, there was a General (Defence Minister). The finance and general administration was looked after by the other official. There were ministers under him who used to look after two separate divisions of the country”. The soil of the whole land had become exceptionally fertile. A separate officer named Antarangdhur was appointed to look after the land where there was a possibility of finding precious stones and minerals. The officers who used to look after the state’s income from tax revenue was designated as Bhandaradhikari. Commercial relations were established with those foreign countries where valuable stones were exported. The important ports of that period were Uruvela (on the mouth of Kalaoya), Kalpitiya or Colombo.

Parakkamabahu built up a very massive defence force. The youth belonging to the rich merchants and landlords were educated and trained at the royal palace. Different kinds of army^[9] regiments were raised. The battalions of Dravidians and brave tribes were also raised. Such regiments were trained for night warfare. Such army regiments were named as Ghurikaggahak, Kappukhaddak, Khudhaseraak, Sinhala Gandhabba and Shantikavachar. They were trained in the use of different kinds of arms and ammunition. Commanders of the battalions were selected on the basis of their performance at the regimental training centres where the soldiers were thoroughly trained. This kind of defence training was given to all able bodied young men so that there would be no shortage of fighters^[10] in the event of a battle.

In Polannaruva Gajabahu started inducting foreign princes in his army. Parakkamabahu began suspecting that either of his foreign princes may succeed to the throne of Polannaruva even though none of them was Buddhist when the neighbouring states of Ruhunu and Rajrattha noticed the increasing military strength of Parakkamabahu, they began worrying about their defence constantly. Consequently, they started mobilising the forces in order to meet the challenge.

After a very minute study, Parakkamabahu prepared a war-plan under which he instigated a battle at Dumbar and its neighbouring areas. He sent his secret agents to Gajabahu’s Dandadhinayak Rakkha and brought him to his side. Rakkha was a military general at Mattikand district. The battle of path Dumber was easily won, but Mattikanda was protected by the forces of Rakkha’s former colleague.

Rambukvella and Demaltha Padthali easily won victories in the district of Neelagallak (the port of modern Uddumbark) and Dhanumandal (five miles south of Teldenine and modern Denuvil and Nissenikhat district) Parakkamabahu presented Lord Buddha’s hair relics to Rakkha in recongnition of these victories. Later on Rakkha and his forces marched towards Neelgalla or Neelgiri district and attack Vapikatak region. Gajabahu sent his forces to face the attack from Rakkha. Parakkamabahu, on the other hand, sent his forces to join Rakkha’s forces. It was a very tough battle between Gajabahu’s forces and Rakkha’s forces. Ultimately, Gajabahu’s forces had to retreat and thus Parakkmabahu was able to occupy “Majjhim Vagga” district (near Maidivak and Maduged). Only Kosal Vagga district remained to be captured for conquering to whole of Malaya region. With this end in view Parakkamabahu, once again, tried to win away the General of Gajabahu to his side. In reply to this General Koshavagga Sisachinnakbodhi faced the forces of Parakkamabahu but was badly defeated.

Ultimately Parakkamabahu attacked Polannaruva. It is said that the secret agents of king Parakkamabahu opened the gates^[11] of the city. He could easily take over the control of enemy capita because of the active role of this secret agents in the city. Parakkamabahu captured Gajabahu and imprisoned him in his own palace.

The entire military expedition was completed by the forces of Parakkamabahu within a very short time. He was waiting at Nalanda for the news that Gajabahu would accept his supremacy and send him presents. Polannaruva town was in a very strange situation. The general of Gajabahu sent a message to the effect that the subjects of the kingdom would not accept the sovereignty of any other king so long as King Gajabahu was alive. The king, therefore, should be put to death.

In Polannaruva, the victorious forces violated war ethics and began plundering the town. The state officials of Gajabahu sent a message to Manabharan, the ruler of Ruhunu asking for military help from him. He promised that the control of Rajrattha province would be handed over to him. Meanwhile Parakkamabahu sent Gen. Dev to Polannaruva to supervise that the forces observed war ethics and stopped plundering. He instructed the general even to punish the erring soldiers. But by the time Gen. Dev reached Polannaruva, the forces of Manabharan also reached there. A battle broke out between two forces in which Parakkamabahu’s forces were defeated. Even his general Dev was made a prisoner in that battle. Manabharan released Kin Gajabahu and established his authority over Polannaruva. He took over absolute power into his own hands and killed many of Gajabahu’s ministers. He put Gajabahu in a dungeon.

Manabharan took charge of Gajabahu’s horses and elephants. He took over his royal treasures and symbols too. He asked for Buddha’s relics and begging bowl from Ruhunu. These holy mementoes were taken away from Polannaruva during the period of Gajabahu. In course of time, Manabharan replaced Gajabahu and proclaimed himself as the ruler of Rajrattha. In consultation with his ministers and mother, he decided to Kill Gajabahu either by poisoning or by starving. Gajabahu came to know of Manabharan’s sinister plan. He was successful in arrange military assistance from Parakkamabahu secretly. in a message he requested Parakkamabahu to get him released. Without much delay Parakkamabahu sent his forces for the protection of Gajabahu’s life.

His forces attacked Polannaruva from all side. At first they released general Dev and despatched him to direct the forces at Gangatotak. Parakkamabahu’s forces blockaded paths to Polannaruva and Rohana at several strategic points. The import and export trade routes as well as the means of communication were cut off. In a word, the capital was surrounded by armed guards from all sides. Manabharan marched to face the advancing forces but was pushed back. Ultimately, he took shelter in a fort.

Manabharan was, somehow or other, able to run away to Rohan. He was accompanied by his mother and queens. He took with him Buddha’s ashes and begging bowl. The forces of Parakkamabahu entered the capital and released Gajabahu. The forces did not wait to welcome Parakkamabahu who was marching ahead from Buddhagam (Mainikden) to Polannaruva. But he entered Kothasar district without any delay.

Parakkamabahu was in possession of Polannaruva for the second time. But he did not go into the capital. Rather he established his headquarters at Giritatak Giritale and took rest there for some days. Within a short while, Gajabahu’s forces attacked Parakkamabahu’s victorious forces. This treacherous and crafty behaviour angered Parakkamabahu. Parakkamabahu’s forces marched towards Kotthasar to arrest Gajabahu. Gajabahu could assess his own military strength and understood well that some day or other, he was going to be arrested.

Finding no other way left, Gajabahu made a desperate bid to save his life. In order to make a support with the religious circle, he took refuge in the monastic order. The order of monks listened to his prayers. A delegation^[12] of monks went to Parakkamabahu. The delegation urged Parakkamabahu “In the interest of the Buddha Dhamma and for the welfare of the people, he should stop the war here itself, and return to his parent country” King Gajabahu is a guest of few days. He has neither any brother nor any son..

In the interest of humanity and that of the order of monks, Parakkamabahu decided to return. He along with his forces went to the southern country. Such kind of sacrifice was no mean thing on the part of a king of the stature of Parakkamabahu. He set a unique example in this respect Gajabahu never went towards his capital Polannaruva. He spent his last days in Kantsai.

Manabharan, too, was not discouraged in his attempts. His ambition to become the ruler of Rajrattha was still alive in his mind. To realise his aim, he began playing with several sinister plans. He sent his diplomats with lucrative gifts to Gajabahu and thus he re-established friendship with him. Gajabahu now fully realised his ulterior motive and flatly refused his offer. He went to Mandalgiri (Maidigiri) Buddha Vihara and got an inscription engraved in the presence of the order of monks. The inscription read, “I have approved and accepted Parakkamabahu as a ruler (King) of Rajrattha after my death”. Sometime after his return to Kantsai he died (1153 A.C). He ruled over Rajrattha for 22 years. The said inscription could not be found in Maidigiri but its replica was discovered at Sangam^[13] Vihara.

After the death of Gajabahu, his ministers invited Manabharan to come to Kotthasar and take over the reins of Rajrattha. In order to prevent Parakkamabahu from becoming the ruler of Rajrattha, the ministers were prepared to provide all types of help to Manabharan. He along with his forces reached Kotthasar, immediately after knowing this; Parakkamabahu sent his forces to Polannaruva and took over the administration of the state capital. This time Parakkamabahu had made full preparations for a battle and hence Manabharan had to return without any success. Manabharan once again crossed the river and attempted to attack Polannaruva, but it was in vain.

Parakkamabahu resolved firmly to continue the battle against Manabharan. He planned to make an attack on Manabharan’s borders. In Mahanikaya district (Avissavailla near Mahiyangan), he posted two generals who marched from Panchyojan district (pasduv korle) to Navayojan district. Over and above capturing those districts, they took over Kolonnav (near Colombo) and Marvak koarle also. They did not spare even Nilavayaganga plateau (Mater district) where Parakkamabahu’s forces fought a grim battle against Manabharan’s forces. Manabharan sent his forces beyond Mahaveli Ganga to drive away the enemy. In the mean time, Gen. Narayan, the general of Gajabahu rebelled against Parakkamabahu. Even after Parakkamabahu had become the king, he continued to keep his hold on Anuradhapur. But due to his death, the rebellion also died down.

Manabharan once again took over the control of Polannaruva but his adversary was not prepared to go back. He was bent on fighting a decisive battle. He took the forces from Vikrampur to Kyangam. At that time Gen Rakkha attacked Manabharan’s border areas at Rajatkader. He was quite successful in this battle. Parakkamabahu who won the battle of Mihiranbimbil marched towards Samarangan to capture Manabharan. He along with his forces crossed the river at night when it had been raining heavily. Nobody noticed him when he fled away with his forces. In the following morning, Parakkamabahu’s forces captured Shrivallabha, the son of Manabharan, and demolished his castle. The soldiers of Parakkamabahu wanted to chase away the forces of Manabharan but Parakkamabahu himself prevented them from doing so. He entered Polannaruva after taking Shrivallabha as his captive.

Some time after his defeat Manabharan passed away. Before his death, he had ordered his princes and advised his family to accept the supremacy of Parakkamabahu and to live under his royal umbrella.

King Parakkamabahu got himself coronated for the second time. Of course, this time, he was coronated as the ruler of entire Sinhala island. In the 12th year of coronation, he laid an inscription at Devnangal in which he made a declaration, “I fought war with only two persons (Gajabahu and Manabharan), and brought the entire island under one umbrella”. The second coronation of Parakkamabahu was solemnised at Polannaruva in 1154 A.C and he was then declared as the Lankeswar. A description of this ceremony is given in detail in.Culavamsa..

According to “Culavamsa”,

“After becoming the lord of Sinhala country (Lankeswar), he did four important works:
1) He made his subjects happy with plenty and prosperity.
2) He revived the Buddha Sasana.
3) He made provisions for the protection of merchants and landlords, and
4) He extended assistance to those who wanted to take refuge in the Triple^[14] gem”.

For the purification of Buddha Sasana, Parakkamabahu did two important works. firstly, the unification of the order of monks and secondly, the expulsion of morally depraved monks from the monastic order.

Three important Nikaya traditions were in vogue in the then Sinhala country. Some people followed Mahavihara tradition since the reign of Devanampriya Tissa. Abhay Giri tradition was introduced at the time of King Walangamba and getvana tradition was being followed since the time of the king Mahasen. But in reality these three traditions were opposed to one another. There were several differences of opinion among them. From the standpoint of the style of functioning, the first Nikaya tradition was quite different from the second as well as the third tradition. Mahavihara Nikaya tradition used to consider itself pure sthaviravadin and the other two vaitulyavadin. Quite naturally, it was an extremely complex and difficult job to bring those three traditions together. But these three traditions became united in consequences of pressure tactics of the state power. After the purification of Buddha Dhamma, the ordination ceremonies could be completed easily.

An important incident took place in this period. Up to the period of King Parakkamabahu (12th century) no monk was awarded a.degree. or “honorific” Actually, there was no such tradition till then. But the Buddha Sasana was amended during Polannaruva era. After that Ven. Saruputta, the monk of Jetvana Vihara was awarded the degree^[15] of Sangharaja. This was for the first time in the history of Sinhalese Buddhism that a monk was awarded a degree. And this was the beginning of conferring of the honorary degrees. After this, various kinds of degrees began to be awarded and this tradition is still prevalent in Sinhala Island. Some of such degrees or titles we still come across are Nayak, Mahanayak and Sanghanayak.

A descriptive account of the purification of the Buddha Sasana is found in gal^[16] Vihara inscription of Polannaruva which reads, “Oh the advice of Ven” Mahakashyap Mahasthavir of Udumbargiri Vihara, hundreds of unproficient and evil monks were expelled from the order, and three Nikaya traditions were transformed into one. King Parakkamabahu built many new Viharas and renovated the broken and damaged ones. He made arrangements for spiritual, material and moral needs of the monastic order. An ordination ceremony in the royal presence of his majesty used to take place on the.water periphery. (Udak Seema) of Mahaveli River every year.

In the heart of the capital he built an alms-receiving centre (dana shala) on the lines of alms-receiving centre in Anuradhapura. The monks used to receive alms there from lay Buddhists. Similar almsreceiving centre were built in all the four directions of the capital. The next remarkable work was the construction of hospitals where doctors, nurses and other para-medical staffs were ever ready to nurse the patients. It is said that King Parakkamabahu himself was a famous doctor and used to go to the hospitals to nurse the sick on the Uposatha days.

There was remarkable progress in literature during the reign of Parakkamabahu. In the 5th century A.C, Acharya Ven. Buddhaghosha wrote the commentaries (Attakatha or Arthakatha) on Tripitaka. According to the Sinhalese traditions, those commentaries were originally written in the ancient Sinhalese language and were translated into Pali by Acharya Ven. Buddhaghosha. After this until the time of Parakkamabahu or up to the Polannaruva age, different kinds of Buddhists scriptures and treatises were composed in Sinhala. One such treatise was a Pali grammar. King Parakkamabahu asked a team of experts under Ven. Kashyap Sthavir to write commentaries on the Attakatha (critics). Under this scheme, several such commentaries were written. This job was completed by 1000 monks within a year (in 1207 A.C). It was in this age when in India the seats of great learning and education centres like Nalanda, Odantpuri, Vikramshila and Jagaddala were destroyed. Some of these centres were burnt down. The resident monks were either killed or made to flee away to foreign countries. All that time even South India was devoid of the Buddhist monastic community^[17].

During Anuradhapura and Polannaruva era, there were Ashtamulayat (centres of contemporary languages and literature). Such centres were also known as Utullamulu, Golatumul and Villgamul. Literature written during this period was popularly known as Saku literature or Sanskrit literature. Such literature comprises verses praising and glorifying the king and these verses were composed by sons of ministers and by rich people. The king on his part used to give them wealth and valuables. Many scholars including doctors and medical experts from India were invited and felicitated. Literature composed at the end of Anuradhapura era and at the beginning of Polannaruva age was known as.Saku literature.^[18].

But Pali literature surpassed Saku literature in popularity and prominence during Polannaruva era. This period is regarded as the “golden age” of Pali literature. Dambulagal Aranyayatan achieved a status of primacy in the field of Buddhalogy in the entire Sinhala Island. This position was in line with a tradition initiated by Ven. Kashyap Sthavir. The resident monks belonging to the Kashyap Sthavir disciple tradition created a tradition of Pali literature. The famous commentators of this age were disciples of Ven. Sariputra Sthavir. Ginalankar and its Vannan (description), Dathavansa Jinacharitra Pajjamadha and Maggalayan Grammar etc were the prominent creations of this era.

Ven. Acharya Buddhaghosha compiled and edited Attakatha. After that Moggallayan’s Pali grammar was written in reply to Kacchayan’s Pali grammar. It transpires that two grammatical traditions were in vogue among the scholars of Sinhala. Apart from these two traditions, there was one more tradition of grammar. The treatises like Nirukti Manjusha, Chulanirunkri and Niruktipitak were created under the influence of this third tradition of grammar. Ven. Mahakashyap himself was an author of Balavbodhan grammar which was written under the influence of Chandrayan Grammar. Ven. Dhammakirti’s Rupavatara and a resident of Getvanarama and Moggallayan’s Abhidhammapadipika are regarded as remarkable literary exercise of Polannaruva age. During this period, the Sinhalese was substantially enriched by Pali literature. Sinhalese poets came to prominence, but except the poetry of Muvdev and Sasada, rest of the poetic literature is not available.

We learn from Polannaruva rock edict that the contemporary prose literature reached its climax in this period. But except two treatises of Gurulugomi, no other prose treatise^[19] is available. Likewise, the writings on medical education was also highly developed. Buddhadas, a physician from Anuradhapura was regarded as a famous doctor of the time. The great victor Parakkamabahu himself was a medical expert.

After declaring Polannaruva as the capital of the Sinhala island, Parakkamabahu rebuilt the township. The construction of a royal palace was a part of this public works programme. The rampart walls were high and well-built. New roads were constructed. As per accounts in “Culavamsa” sixteen royal gates were erected for the new city. With of the capital city was four gabuts (8 miles) while the length was seven gabuts (16 miles). The open space between the palace structure and the rampart walls in the north-south and east-west directions was about half a mile and this space was known as “Cullavagga” The word “Cullavagga” probably meant an open ground around the rampart wall. It might also mean the open land outside the rampart wall. To the south of the town the king built a multi-storeyed castle, the walls of which were extremely strong. In front of this personal place, there was park named Nandanvan. The park was beautified with four kinds of springs like Silapokharani, Mangalpokharani and Sugandhijal Pokharani. Besides Nandanvan, one more park could be traced there. This park, located in the west of the town was known as Deeprudyan. The park surrounded by several buildings was reserved for the personal use of the king. Deepudyan was situated near Parakkam Samudra.

Till then the relics of Lord Buddha and the begging bowl of the lord could not be obtained for Polannaruva capital. The capital was not considered to be complete and safe without these holy relics. Three years after Parakkamabahu had become the king of Sinhala Island, Manabharan’s mother Sugal Devi tried to flare up a rebellion in Ruhunu region against the king. Parakkamabahu took it so easily that he smiled away the development. But in reality it was not an ordinary rebellion. It could be calmed down only after thousands of soldiers had lost their lives. Sugal Devi^[20] was caught. The Buddha’s relics and begging bowl was brought to Polannaruva with great ceremonies and festivities. A shrine for the tooth-relic was built in the middle of the capital. A relic Vihara was also built in Jetvanarama and it was easily visible from Abhayagiri Vihara in Anuradhapura.

King Parakkamabahu established a study centre (Alahan Parivena) for the study of the monks to the north of the capital. The first building of the centre was a replica of court palace. A great Buddha Seema Prasad (palace) comprised a Uposatha hall and Vihara. Other constructions worth mentioning include Rupavati Chaitya (perhaps Kirivihar Chaitya) and Subhadra Chaitya. It is presumed that both the Chaityas were built by Queen Rupavati. An entrance hall (mandap) was constructed by Prakkamabahu. This grand hall looks attractive even today in its ruinous condition^[21]. There was Pachimarana to the west of the capital. Uttarrama (present Galavihar) was situated to the north of the study centre. It is in a ruinous condition now. Special mention may be made of the three cottages built by renowned sculptors. The names of these cottages were: 1) Vidyagriha Kuti (cottage for the students) 2) Shanti Pratima Granph Kuti (serene image cottage) and 3) Sinhashyya Pratim Kuti (Lion bed image cottage). The images of Lord Buddha were enshrined here with great respect. The height of the serene image in the worth was 15 feet and 2½ inches. The second image of lotus posture was 4 feet 7 inches tall and the third image in a standing position was 22 feet 5 inches high. This standing image was near the head of Lord Buddha’s reclining posture before passing into Parinibban. The last image in a lion bed posture was 4 inches long. These images are made out of a monolithic rock. The images are carved and engraved very artistically.

A stupa to the north of above cottages is known as Tamil stupa as his stupa was constructed by Tamil prisoners. This was the tallest and the biggest stupa in Polannaruva Jetvanarama is situated about two miles away from the capital in the north direction.

This was built on a vast area and comprised four important buildings, such as:

1) Tivank Pratima, Griha wherein lay the Buddha’s images at three different places. At present it is known as Uttar Vihara. Some people erroneously call it Demalmahasaya also.

2) Tooth-relic Vihara. This was circular in shape and size.

3) Ashta-sila Sinha Griha and 4) A residence building, constructed for Ven. Shariputra Sthavir.

“Culavamsa” makes a mention of one more building named Kapil Vihara. The walls of this building were decorated with artistic paintings. It is believed that it was built in memory of sage Kapila and was donated for the residence of monks belonging to Tapas Nikaya tradition.

On the rock edicts inspired by Chandravati, the second queen of King Parakkamabahu, there is a mention that, “The king has built a Vihara”. The name of this Vihara is not found. There was one more to the south of ancient Polannaruva. This Vihara was famous as a Potgul Vihara (Library Vihara). There is a beautiful standing image of the height of 14 feet 6 inches near this Vihara. It looks as if the image is in a reading posture. It is considered to be the statue of King Parakkamabahu.

According to.Culavamsa. there was a Vihara as well as a palatial building at a distance of a gabut (every two miles) in a mountainous region near Polannaruva. Names of some of these palatial buildings were Rajvesi, Bhujang Mahal, Sinhapur and Vigit. Names of some of the Viharas were Isipatan Vihara, Kusinara Vihara and Veluvan Vihara. Apart from building, these Viharas and palatial houses, king Parakkamabahu repaired a broken-up stupa near Anuradhapura and renovated many other Viharas.

“Culavamsa” is silent about Parakkamabahu’s arrangements for the management of his capital town. We learn from some other sources that the king instructed his district collectors to avoid losses in the state revenue. He further asked them to ensure that no subject was harassed unnecessarily. As per the Sinhala Nikaya tradition, the king appointed 15 ministers (Amatyas) to look after the administration. Apart from this arrangement, we find the mention of some officials, the departmental correspondence and other official records such a department was divided into eight divisions. Each revenue receipt division was further divided into sub-divisions. The department of stores was divided into four parts. Handicrafts Divisions was divided into eight sub-divisions. It is worth mentioning that eighteen thousand villages were not under the perview of those sub-division. There was a separate division for the management of those villages. The king made some special provisions for the protection of wild life. Slaughter of animals and catching of fish on the Uposatha days was strictly prohibited.

During 11th or 12th year of his coronation (1164 A.C), King Parakkamabahu attacked either Ramanya or Arman (Burma). It is presumed that he was compelled by Burmese king in this act of aggression. Sinhala country and Burma had been on friendly terms for centuries. A descriptive account to this effect is given in detail in “Culavamsa.^[22] ” The basis for such an age old friendship might be Buddhism only. The exchange of expensive presents between the two countries was a regular feature. The then Burmese king was getting old and ultimately he died in 1167 A.C. The cause of his death is attributed to his son’s insulting behaviour. Even after his father’s death, Allaungsithu maintained amicable relations with the Sinhalese King for some more years.

We find the mention of a traditional custom between the two countries. When a Sinhalese diplomat used to visit Burma, the Burmese administrator (king) would present him an elephant as a gift. In exchange of this, the host country used to get valuable gifts from Sinhala country. After a period of time, the Burmese King Allaungsithu discontinued this practice. The Burmese king seized the ships and elephants of the Sinhala diplomats who had gone to Burma along with a message on a letter of gold plate. He chained them and put them behind bars. Moreover, he compelled the Sinhalese prisoners to do hard physical labour. He ordered that no Burmese ship would be allowed to sail to Sinhala Island. On the other hand, no Sinhalese ship, too, would not visit Burma. Later on, he compelled the Sinhalese diplomats to sign a declaration to this effect. The declaration read, “If any Sinhalese person tried to enter the Burmese Borders, he will be sentenced to death. And the king shall not be blamed for this”. He sent back the Sinhalese diplomats in a broken boat. On some other occasion, the Burmese king promised the Sinhala diplomat 14 (fourteen) elephants and even accepted the price for elephants but forced him to return with empty hands. He even caught a Sinhalese prince who was going to Combodia through the Burmese sea. King Parakkamabahu did not tolerate any more and determined to take revenge of these insulting acts.

Many war ships under the leadership of Adiccha (Damil-Tamil) left for Burma from Pallavavank port, situated on the north-eastern coast. Many ships were sunk due to cyclone. Some ships could, however, reach the shore. One of the ships hit at Kaldvip (one of the ports in the Andaman Islands). Sinhala naval commander Nagergiri entered the Kusumia port with five warships. The Sinhalese forces fought a brave battle with the Burmese forces. Later on, general Adiccha also reached there. He attacked Ukam Nagar and took control of it. According to the account in “Culavamsa”, King Allaungsithu got killed at Kukkam by the Sinhalese forces. But the Burmese historical traditions do not endorse this view. Sinhala naval forces returned after completing its task. The purpose of king Parakkamabahu’s aggression on Burma was not to capture that country but to give it the feeling of its military might. After a period of time, King Allaungsithu sent a delegation of monks and reached a reapproachment. He re-established friendly relations with Sinhala country.

The forces of King Parakkamabahu had to cross the sea second time when Pandya King attacked Sinhala island. There was no direct aggression against Sinhala Dvipa since 1070 A.C. The country was free from external aggression for 83 years. It transpires from this fact that the strength of Cholas and Pandyas had become very weak during this period.

Parakkamabahu pushed back the aggression of Pandya King. But he did not stop there. His forces chased away the naval forces of the Pandyas. In an attempt to subdue Pandya King, King Parakkamabahu sent forces under the leadership of Lankapur Amatya (minister) to South India. Before he reached there he learnt that King Kulsekhar seized Madura. He killed King Parakkama Pandya’s queen and children. In this situation, the forces of Parakkamabahu attacked Kulsekhar. When Sinhala general Mahaditya reached six miles away from Madur, he got a message that Parakkama Pandya’s son was alive was hiding in Malaya (In the region between Travancore and Madura). General Mahaditya received a message from King Parakkamabahu that Parakkama Pandya’s son should be installed on his father’s throne. The Sinhala general defeated King Kulsekhar and enthroned King Parakkama Pandya’s son as a successor, to his father and returned to his motherland.

Like King Vattagamini, King Parakkamabahu never participated in any battle directly. He appointed generals for the direction of the movement of his forces. He himself used to remain in the battle camps and issue orders to his commanders,^[23] as the commanders of the present time do.

Dr. Paranvital says, “Along with the rise of political power of Parakkamabahu in 1153 A.C, there arose in entire Sinhala Island, an era of peace and prosperity”. He further says, “Thirty-three years of Parakkamabahu’s regime is considered an excellent chapter in the history of Sinhala nation so far as a field of building art is concerned” The remains of buildings are its proofs. In every respect, King Parakkamabahu’s era is considered a “Golden Age” in the history of Sinhala nation. Literature, sculpture, painting, religion, administration, industry and agriculture were on their climax of.progress.^[24]..

King Parakkamabahu had two queens-Bhadravati and Rupavati. Rupavati was a princess of Kittisirimegha racial dynasty. Both the queens were well-versed^[25] and generous. The religious nature of both the queens was at the root of the Chaityas at Polannaruva. Bhadravbati Chaitya and Rupavati Chaitya bore the names of these two queens.

Parakkamabahu had no issue from any of these queens. His nephew Vijaybahu-II who used to live in Kalinga country was selected as his successor. According to “Culavamsa”, King Parakkamabahu had three sister’s. The first two were given in marriage to Manabharan of Ruhunu country, while the third was Gajabaahu’s queen. It was quite likely that he might have got a fourth sister who perhaps was given in marriage to a Kalinga prince and Prince Vijaybahu-II^[26] was his son.

In the later part of the history of Sinhala nation, king Parakkamabahu alone seems to have reached the climax of political supremacy. But what was achieved during three decades (1153. 1186 A.C) with honey bee-like industrious nature^[27] became extinct after the death of king Parakkamabahu. This was not the fault of great Parakkamabahu, but of the Sinhalese people who, instead of following the footprints of their national hero, confused themselves into civil wars and became a cause of their ruination.

A huge rock statue of King Parakkamabahu, the great, takes us back to the memory of the past glory and prosperity of Sinhala nation. The entire Sinhalese people are proud of Parakkamabahu and his era. The popularity of Parakkamabahu is attested by the fact that no less than seven monarchs adopted his name over the next four centuries of whom only two or three could lay claim to even a fraction of his successes. He took Shrilanka to greater heights than it had reached in a long time. He united the whole Island under his rule and even invaded foreign countries. He was known for the rapid development of infrastructure during his reign, building a large amount of tanks, canals and artificial lakes. His largest legacy was the Parakkama Samudra or “sea of Parakkama”, a vast lake adjoining his capital at Polannaruva. His most famous quote was “Not one drop of water shall reach the sea without first serving man”.