Rudra-Shiva concept (Study)
by Maumita Bhattacharjee | 2018 | 54,352 words
This page relates ‘The Concept of God’ of the study on the Rudra-Shiva concept in the Vedic and Puranic literature, starting with the concept of God as contemplated by the Rishis (Vedic sages). These pages further deal with the aspects, legends, iconography and eulology of Rudra-Shiva as found in the Samhitas, Brahamanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads Sutras and Puranas. The final chapters deal with descriptions of his greatness, various incarnations and epithets.
1. The Concept of God
The Vedas are regarded as the most sacred and ancient texts of Hinduism. The word Veda comes from the root vid to know with the suffix ac or ghañ. According to Sāyaṇācārya, Veda is that book by which people can know the supernormal means of attainment of desired things and avoidance of unwanted things.[1] Manu says in his book Manusmṛti that the Veda is the source of dharmas or religions.[2] There are four Vedas in number, viz. the Ṛgveda, the Yajurveda, the Sāmaveda and the Atharvaveda. Vedas are the storehouse of knowledge and it reveals the religious thought. In the ancient period, the Vedic Āryans worshipped the natural elements as their gods. They wondered seeing the powerful strength of nature. The Vedic people started to believe that there must be some energy behind nature. They believed in the omnipotence of the supernatural which inspired them to venerate the different phenomena of nature. The gods are worshipped thinking about the different phenomena of nature. They preside over supernatural entities. These supernatural powers govern the phenomena of nature. The Vedic people believed the natural phenomena as deities. There are some qualities in the character of gods which are common qualities to all gods. They are brilliant, powerful, immortal, compassionate, omniscient, holy, omnipotent, omnipresent, truthful, auspicious, and virtuous.
The gods help their devotees in every step and destroy as well as punish the wicked person. They are satisfied easily by the prayer of their worshippers and offsprings, long-life, prosperity, happiness, knowledge, success are bestowed upon them.
The term deva (god) comes from the root div to shine. So the term deva means one who is shining. According to Yāska, deva is one who bestows gifts (from the root dā), who is shining (from the root dīp), who is bright (from the root dyut) and who resides in the heaven.[3] Yāska again states that whatever (any object) is praised by a devotee in the hymn is called as devatā.[4] Every individual god is prayed as a Supreme one. According to the Vedas, the Ultimate Being manifested himself in different forms. The Vedic seers call the one being by numerous names. They call him as Agni, Indra, Yama, Mātariśvān.[5] According to the philosophical hymns, the origin of the deities is connected with the element of water.[6]
Yāska, the author of Nirukta, classified the gods which are mentioned in the Vedas, as three. He states that—there are three deities, viz. ‘Agni whose place is on the earth, Vāyu or Indra whose place is in the air and Sūrya whose place is on the sky’.[7] According to the Nairuktas, the deities obtained many designations as a result of their greatness or of the variety of their deeds, such as Hotṛ, Adhvaryu, Brahman, Udagātṛ—all these are applied to the same person.[8]
Another reference has been found in the Nirukta, where it is said that the different deities belong to one soul. That means they are separate limbs of one Ātman and this one soul of different deities is invoked in many ways.[9] For example, sometimes the devotees worship the gods in groups, sometimes three, four or more deities are worshipped by them (worshippers). It is not possible to classify the gods according to their importance. So, the Vedic scholars state that there are three types of gods in accordance with their residence—those who reside in the celestial region, those (gods) who dwell in the atmospheric region and a third type who belong to the terrestrial region. Among these gods, the importance of some of the deities has been discussed here. The choice of the deities is either because they form the source ideas for later development in Hindu theology or because of their prominence in the Vedic mythology itself.
Agni is the most prominent deity of the Vedic Indians. At least 200 hymns are dedicated to him in the Ṛgveda and in several hymns, he is prayed jointly with other gods. The first mantra of the Ṛgveda is dedicated to god Agni.[10] Agni is a terrestrial god. He is declared as the carrier of the sacrifice. That is why, he is known as Havirāt.[11] The contact between Agni and man is very closer only because of the daily sacrifice. According to the Ṛgveda, Agni has originated from different gods. In a reference, Dyau is said to be the father of Agni.[12] In another reference, it is said that he took his birth from water.[13] The Ṛgveda states repeatedly that Agni is generated by the rubbing of two fire sticks.[14] So, these two fire sticks are called as his parents. The upper stick is male and the lower is female.[15] He is known as Purohita, Deva, Hotā, Ṛtvik of the sacrifices.[16] He has tawny-beard,[17] tawny-hair,[18] flame-hair,[19] golden teeth.[20] He has thousand eyes.[21] He is an archer.[22]
Indra is the most popular and prominent god in the Vedas. In the Ṛgveda, 250 hymns are dedicated to him. He is an atmospheric god. He is said to have tawny-coloured hair[23] and beard[24] The Asuras’ drought and destruction are defeated by Indra. He is mentioned as the god of thunder and rain.[25] Thunderbolt is his weapon.[26] Many heroic deeds are ascribed to Indra. He killed so many demons like Ahi,[27] Vṛtra.[28] He is repeatedly called as Suśipra,[29] Śipravān,[30] Somapā[31] and Vṛtrahan.[32] Sāyaṇācārya explains the term vṛtrahan as vṛtrahan vṛtrasya hiṃsakaḥ.[33] He killed Vṛtra by the help of Viṣṇu.[34] He is the destroyer of wicked people.[35] He is said to be close to man both as father and brother.[36] Indra is said to create Agni between the two stones.[37]
Varuṇa occupies a prominent position among the Vedic deities. His supremacy cannot be ignored. He is a god of the celestial region. A reference has been found in the Ṛgveda where it is stated that Varuṇa is the possessor of vast knowledge and that no one can escape from him. He is omniscient[38] and the king of the entire world.[39] He is spoken of as Dhṛtavrata,[40] Ṛtasyagopā or guardian of ṛta.[41] The word ṛta denotes cosmic law as well as truth and moral order. Varuṇa is described as the ruler of the world and also the administrator of the moral law. He is addressed as king of all, both gods and men.[42] He is said to be the rescuer of sin and death of his devotees.[43] He creates intellect in heart, fire in water, Sūrya in heaven and Soma on the mountain.[44] He is mentioned as the controller of waters.[45]
Viṣṇu is a celestial god. He is depicted as the god who takes three steps.[46] He traverses the earth with these three steps.[47] According to the classical writers, the three steps are either the rising, culminating and the setting of the sun or the three classifications of the world which the sun traverses.[48] His three steps are referred to as his principal characteristics. He is also called Urugāya[49]
Kucara, Giriṣṭhā.[50] Indra killed a demon named Vṛtra with the help of Viṣṇu.[51] In the Vedic literature, Pūṣan occupied an important position from the point of view of the number of hymns dedicated to him. Pūṣan belongs to the celestial region. The word pūṣan is derived from the root puṣ to nourish. Pūṣan is described as the guardian of every path[52] and also called Pathaspati or the lord of the road.[53] He protects all men and animals from harm. That is why he is known by a name, Vimocana.[54] He is a god who takes care of the cattle and brings them back when gone astray.[55] It is stated that he protects and guards the steeds,[56] the strong and the increaser of nourishment.[57] A unique feature of Pūṣan is mentioned, as that his chariot is drawn by goats instead of horses. For that reason he is called Ajāśva.[58]
It is not possible to enumerate and describe all the gods of the early Vedic times. Here, only a few important points have been discussed in respect of some important gods.
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
[2]:
vedo’khilo dharmamūlam | Manusmṛti, 2.6
[4]:
athāto daivatam | tadyāni nāmāni prādhānyastutīnāṃ devatānāṃ tad daivatamityācakṣate | saiṣā devatopaparīkṣā || Ibid., 7.1
[5]:
[6]:
Ibid., 10.121; 10.129
[7]:
[8]:
tāsāṃ mahābhāgyādekaikasyāḥ api bahūni nāmadheyāni bhavanti | api vā karmapṛthaktvāt | yathā hotā’dhvaryurbrahmodgātā-ityapi ekasya sataḥ | Ibid., 7.2.5
[9]:
[10]:
Ṛgveda, 1.1.1
[11]:
antarvidvān adhvano devayānānatandro dūto abhavo havirvāṭ || Ibid., 1.72.7
[12]:
agnir amṛto abhavadvayobhir yad enaṃ dyaur janayat suretāḥ | Ibid., 10.45.8
[15]:
Ibid., 3.29.3
[16]:
Ibid., 1.1.1
[17]:
hiriśmaśruḥ śucidannṛbhuranibhṛṣṭataviṣiḥ || Ibid., 5.7.7
[18]:
taṃ citrayāmaṃ harikeśamīmahe sudītimagniṃ suvitāya navyase | Ibid., 3.2.13
[19]:
Ibid., 3.17.1
[20]:
Ibid., 5.2.3
[21]:
sahasrākṣo vicarṣaṇiragnī rakṣāṃsi sedhati | Ibid., 1.79.12
[24]:
Ibid., 10.23.4
[25]:
yasta indra mahīrapaḥ stabhūyamāna āśayat | ni taṃ padyāsu śiśnathaḥ || Ibid., 8.6.16
[26]:
Ibid., 1.32.1
[27]:
Ibid., 1.32.2
[28]:
Ibid., 1.32.5
[30]:
Ibid., 6.17.2
[31]:
yaḥ somapā nicito vajrabāhuryo vajrahastaḥ sa janāsa indra | Ibid., 2.12.13
[33]:
Sāyaṇa, Ibid.
[34]:
divo na tubhyamnvindra satrāsuryaṃ devebhirdhāyi viśvam | ahiṃ yadvṛtramapo vavrivāsaṃ hannṛjīṣinviṣṇunā sacānaḥ || Ṛgveda, 6.20.2
[35]:
Ibid., 1.12.10
[36]:
Ibid., 3.53.3
[37]:
yo aśmanorantaragniṃ jajāna saṃvṛksamatsu sa janāsa indraḥ | Ibid., 2.12.3
[38]:
Ibid., 1.25.7-9
[41]:
ṛtena mitrāvaruṇāvṛta vṛdhāvṛtaspṛśa | Ibid., 1.2.8
[42]:
[43]:
[45]:
pra sīmāditya asṛjadvidhartān ṛtaṃ sindhavo varuṇasya yanti | na śrāmyanti na vi mucantye te vayo na paptū raghuyā parijman || Ibid., 2.28.4
[47]:
[48]:
[49]:
yo askabhāyaduttaraṃ sadhastaṃ vicakramāṇastredhorugāyaḥ | Ṛgveda, 1.154.1
[50]:
pra tadviṣṇuḥ stavate vīryeṇa mṛgo na bhīmaḥ kucaro giriṣṭhāḥ | Ibid.,., 1.154.2
[51]:
divo na tubhyamanvindra satrāsuryaṃ devebhirdhāyi viśvam | ahiṃ yadvṛtramapo vavrivāsaṃ hannṛjīṣinviṣṇunā sacānaḥ || Ibid., 6.20.2
[55]:
Ibid., 6.54.5
[56]:
Ibid., 6.53.9
[57]: