Weapons and War in Epics and Purāṇās

(i) Rāmāyaṇa and Warfare

The Rāmāyaṇa reveals that generally, the kings were against warfare. For instance, Rāma rejected the idea of performing the Rājasūya sacrifice because it meant destruction of many lives. He preferred the Aśvamedha which establishes sovereignty through subjugation and acceptance of authority without bloodshed (VII. 74-81).

The state in the epic period had a standing army as is known from statistical details of the armies of Rāvaṇa, Śatrughna, Khara and Rāma. The king, according to the Rāmāyaṇa had a daily inspection of the army (VR. VI. 3. 18). The army was divided into gulmas comprising a certain number of foot-soldeirs, horses, chariots and elephants (VR. VI. 84. 6).

The Rāmāyaṇa has described the army marching on different occasions. The account of the expedition led by Śatrughna gives an idea of how a march was organized. The leader first addressed his junior leaders about the plan, strategy and places of halt (V.R. VII. 56). We also find a reference to the advance unit (Agrāṇikam) (V.R. VI. 4. 11), headed by Nīla which had to search all graves, pits and bushes (V.R. VI. 4. 10).

There are many descriptions in the Rāmāyaṇa on chariots. The movements of chariots were also well-defined. Terms like maṇḍalam, vīthī, gata and pratyāgatha denote movements–circlular, straight, forward and backward respectively (V.R. VI. 96. 3).

The army in the Rāmāyaṇa was deployed in suitable vyūhas. It describes Agra, Pārśva, Madhya and Kukṣi (V.R. VI. 4. 12-7).

The epic gives a long list of weapons used during that time–khaḍga, śakti, daṇḍa, ṛṣṭi, asi, paṭṭiśa, parśva, cakra, gadā, musala, vajra, parigha, kūṭamudgara, yaṣṭi, prāsa, mahāsi, śūla, bhiṇḍipāla, āyasamusala, bhalla and so on. The Rākṣasas and Vānaras were experts in fighting with arms, trees, rocks, nails and teeth. The warriors had a complete knowledge of vital parts (marmas) of body (V.R. VI. 86. 20-2).

One interesting feature in this epic is that Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa were initiated into the bala and atibala mantras by sage Viśvāmitra to enhance their powers and they were empowered by the sage in the use of many astras.

Interestingly, several terms were used to denote a spy–cāra, cāraka, and cārī. The four sacivas of Vibhīṣaṇa worked as Rāma’s spies and collected information on the asura army for him. Rāvaṇa had sent eight spies to Janasthana to have intelligence on Rāma (V.R. III. 52. 17-27).

(ii) Mahābhārata and Warfare

The Mahābhārata, as we know has recorded the great war between the Pāṇḍavas and Kauravas and hence deals elaborately on most aspects of war discussed in later works. It gives a comprehensive account of most aspects of warfare. For instance, it does not merely deal with organization of armed forces, but even defines the qualifications for the Commander-in-chief of the army (MBh. XII. 85. 30-1). It enumerates the qualities of a dūta too.

The Mahābhārata (XII. 97. 2) also holds the view that the king should fight only for a dharmarājya and unnecessary war should be avoided. The march of the army should be against the enemy who is weak and heedless (MBh. XII. 69. 19). All the weapons mentioned in the section on Rāmāyaṇa, mukta and amukta are found to have been used in the Mahābhārata also. The chariot was an important and indispensable instrument of war in this epic too. We read, for example about Vāsudeva’s great skill as a charioteer.

Bhīṣma’s counsel to Yudhiṣṭhira in the Śanti Parva is invaluable. His advice on espionage and counter-espionage are of relevance even today. He brought even the king’s own sons and friends apart from ministers and other people of prominence under the cover of vigilance Śānti.Parva. (69). He held that multiple spies should be employed but care should be taken to ensure that they did not know each other. He suggested that the king should win over the agents of the enemies.

In the Śānti Parva(86), mention is made about six types of forts. A graphic description of Magadha, the capital of Jarāsandha in the Sabhā Parva (21) indicates that his city was inaccessible as it had hills overgrown with trees on all sides.

The troops in this epic were organized in various battle formations (vyūhas) which have been explained in the IV chapter of this dissertation.

Interesting episodes describe army constitution, its numerical strength, the divine and non-divine weapons, war-tactics and organisation of the armed forces. Actual portrayals of battles organically leads to comprehension of theoretical concepts. The peace-time, pre-war events as well as war-time strategies are depicted graphically in this epic. The psyche of the troops, quantum of efforts needed to keep up their spirits are all represented with clarity in this epic.

The war described in this epic was to establish righteousness. It cannot be denied that it was a tactical war.

(iii) Purāṇas and Warfare

Amongst the Purāṇas, Agnipurāṇa provides classification of weapons in general (249. 2), elaborates on archery giving technical details on the construction of bow, arrow (245. 5. 10, 12), outlines certain vyūha formations and advises movements such arrangements (236. 28-37).

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa gives details on the raw-material and construction of a bow (II. 16); qualifications of military and political officials (II. 24); forts (II. 26); ṣāḍguṇya (II. 67-70); kingly duties (II. 151); and dhanurveda including dhanu and khaḍga in separate chapters (II. 178, 182).