3. Ācārya Diṅnāga and His works

According to S.C. Vidyabhusana, Ācārya Diṅnāga lived about 450-520 AD. His two works were translated into Chinese that is in 500 AD. L.M. Joshi opines that modern writers believe that Diṅnāga lived in the fifth century AD., based on the ground that he was a disciple of Vasubandhu. His direct person was Iśvarasena, (C. 600.A.D.) who was the teacher of Dharmakīrti, who lived in the first half of the seventh century A.D. So we can rightly placed Diṅnāga in the first half of the sixth century A.D.^[1]

Diṅnāga “the master and father of medieval logic”, is regarded as the earliest systematic thinker on Buddhist logic. The information about Diṅnāga’s life comes mainly from the Chinese and Tibetan sources.^[2] According to these sources, Diṅnāga was born in Siṅgavakta near Kāñcī in south India.^[3] He was Brahmin but later he adopted Buddhism. According to Hsuan-tsang, the capital of Drāviḍas was Kāñcī. This is the place where the Buddha came here to propagate the dharma and converted many people. This is the reason behind Ashoka’s ordered to build many stupas there. When the Pallava kings were ruling, from the middle fourth to the late nine century, Kāñci was considered as an important centre of Brahmanical and Buddhist study. It is believed that Dharmapāla, a great pupil of Diṅnāga, was also belonging to Kāñcī. According to Bu-ston, under the supervision of Vasubandhu, Diṅnāga learnt about three vehicles and became master at Vijñānavāda and Logic. In order to aid human beings to understand that the cause of world (Saṃsāra) is the ignorance, he wrote the commentary on the Guṇaparyantastotra, Abhidharmakośa-Marmadīpa, the Ālambana-parīkṣā and other fragmentary works, one hundred in number.^[4] His mostly works were mere fragment as he determined to compose the Pramāṇasamuccaya to combine them in one complete work.

In the beginning of this work he wrote a verse to show his pledge:

“I salute him who is personified Logic,
Who pursues the weal of the living beings,
The Teacher, the Blessed one, the protector.
And, in order to demonstrate the means of Logical Proof,
I shall unite here under one head
The different Fragments from all my other treatises.”^[5]

It is believed that when he composed this verse on the side of a rock, the earth started vibrating, a light blazed, a sound of thunder caused by lightning was perceived and many different signs occurred.^[6] A heretical teacher named Kṛṣṇamunirāja was present there at that time and he knew that all those signs are due to Diṅnāga’s words and he tried to rub out the words of Diṅnāga twice.

However, Diṅnāga composed it again and added:

“Know this to be extremely important. Therefore, you must not wipe it, if you are wiping just for the fun of it. If, however, you think it to be wrong and want to have a debate appear in person.”^[7]

Kṛṣṇamunirāja finally presented to have a debate with Diṅnāga and then Kṛṣṇamunirāja was defeated thrice. Diṅnāga asked Kṛṣṇamunirāja to admit the Law of the Buddha but Kṛṣṇamunirāja refused. When Diṅnāga failed to convert Kṛṣṇamunirāja (the heretical teacher) he then also gave up his continuous writing, but suddenly Mañjuśrī came and suggested him to fulfil his promise.^[8] Diṅnāga then completed the śāstra excellently.^[9] This incident indicates that the reason for the conversion of Diṅnāga from Hīnayāna to Mahāyāna. Vidyābhuṣana and Tāranātha also discussed about Diṅnāga’s miracles.^[10]

After completing his Education Diṅnāga stayed for some time in a cave of Oḍiviśa (modern Orissa) and then went monasteries, gave teachings and wrote his works. Tāranātha stated that the ruler of Oḍiviśa had a minister named Bhadrapālita, who was one of the great treasurers. Diṅnāga converted him from Brahmanism to Buddhism. Bhadrapālita then built sixteen monasteries. Each of these monasteries were had different centres for Buddhist studies. Being a famous Buddhist logician, he always lived a simple life in term of twelve ascetic practices. He died in a solitary forest of Oḍiviśa.^[11]

Diṅnāga and Vasubandhu

In general Diṅnāga is considered to be a disciple of Vasubandhu.^[12] However, one of the passages in the Pramāṇasamuccaya indicates that Diṅnāga was unsure of the authorship of Vādavidhi, a work generally attributed to Vasubandhu.

In the first chapter of the Pramāṇasamuccaya, Diṅnāga wrote:

“The Vādavidhi is not [a work] of the teacher [Vasubandhu]. Or, [granted that it is his work,] it is affirmed [by Vasubandhu] that the quintessence [of his thought] is not [revealed in it].”^[13]

Diṅnāga’s uncertainty is cleared by Jinendrabuddhi, the author of Viśālāmalavatīnāma–Pramānasamuccayatīkā, in the following way: Vasubandhu’s works are faultless. Vādavidhi is not of Vasubandhu because it is faulty. In order to solve this problem Jinendrabuddhi propounds that Vādavidhi was written by Vasubandhu at a time when his knowledge was not perfect. This is also the reason why the kernel of his thinking was not included in this work.^[14] Thus though Diṅnāga was influenced by Vasubandhu’s thought and composed some commentaries on the latter’s works, it is uncertain that he was Vasubandhu’s disciple.

At the time of Vasubandhu, Diṅnāga was a good debater. In ancient times one of the main features of public life is disputations. This happened in the presence of a ruler, his court and a large number of monks and ordinary people. The popularity of the monastery and religious centres relied on such event. The rewarder often got a lot of rewards from the ruler. Before Diṅnāga’s time, Buddhamitra who was the teacher of Vasubandhu defeated by Vindhyavāsin, a Sāṃkhya teacher in a debate which was held in the presence of the king Vikramāditya. This is the reason Vasubandhu challenged the Sāṃkhya teacher. In order to give teachings and to debate Diṅnāga visited Nālandā, Oḍiviśa, Mahārāṣṭra and Dakṣiṇa (Madras). During his visit in Nālandā he defeated Brāhmaṇa Sudurjaya and other Tīrtha dialecticians and he got the title of “Bull in discussion” (S: Tarkapuṅgava). His whole life was full of threatens from many people. Udyotakara, an Indian logician, calls Diṅnāga “a quibbler”. Vācaspati Miśra portrayed him as “an erring one” and “rock” by Mallinātha. If he was not a strongly built man, he could not have lived his life peacefully.^[15]

The Works of Diṅnāga

Diṅnāga was a great scholar in many subjects. In discussion, he was master thus called Bull. He wrote many works, viz. Pramāṇasamuccaya, Hetucakranirṇaya, Hetucakraḍamaru, Nyāya Pravēśa, Pramāṇasamuccaya-vṛtti, Ālambana-parīkṣa, Ālambana-parīkṣa-vṛtti and Trikāla-parīkṣa etc. Most of his works are not available in their original Sanskrit, but many of them are available in Tibetan and Chinese language.

The following twenty-five of his works are given on the catalogue of Taishō of the Chinese Tripiṭaka and the Tōhoku catalogue of the Tibetan Bstan-ḥgyur:

1. Prajñāpāramitāsaṃgrahakārikāvivaraṇa^[16] -This work is translated by Shih-hu and others in Chinese. The Tibetan version was composed by Śraddhākaravarma and Rin-chen bzaṅ-po. It is an epitome of the AṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāSūtra. According to G.Tucci, the original title of this work was Prajñāpāramitāpiṇḍārtha. The commentary of this work was composed by Triratnadāsa, who was a disciple of Vasubandhu and a friend of Diṅnāga, in the title “Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāsaṃgrahavivaraṇa” which is available in Tibet (Tōhoku No. 3810) and Chinese (T.1517).

2. Ālambana-Parīkṣā-In Tibetan language it is known as Dmigs-pa-brtag-pa, means “An examination of the objects of thought”. This work has also been lost in its original language (Sanskrit). It starts with an invocation to Buddha and all Bodhisattvās. In this work Diṅnāga continue the idea of his predecessors, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu in regarding that ālambana, the apparent object of consciousness is not real and consciousness alone is real. The Sanskrit text has been recomposed by N. Aiyaswami Sastri from the Chinese and Tibetan versions and published by the Adyar Library in 1942.^[17] According to F. Tola and C. Dragonetti, the Ālambanaparīkṣā contains eight Kārikās. The Kārikās and vṛtti of this work, both made by Diṅnāga, were translated into Tibetan and Chinese: Tōhoku 4205 (Kārikās) and 4206 (vṛtti); T 1619 (Kārikās) and 1624 (vṛtti) (cf. Nanjio 1172 and 1173, p.259). Ālambanaparīkṣā together with Viṃśaṭīkā and Triṃśika are three important works of Yogācāra tradition.^[18]

3. Hastavālaprakaraṇa (T, 1620; Tōhoku, 3844; Nanjio’s Catalogue of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, 1255) -The original text which was in Sanskrit has been lost, but the Chinese and Tibetan versions are available. Śraddhākaravarma and Rin-chen bzaṅ-po translated the Tibetan version of Hastavālaprakaraṇa and Hastavālaprakaraṇakārikā (Tōhoku, 3848) was made by Dpal-brtsegs rakṣita. In Chinese there are two versions of this work are available, one is done by Paramārtha which is T, 1620 and another by Yijing is T, 1621. The work discusses the non-existence of empirical reality as it appears. The Tibetan and Chinese versions of this work are edited by F.W. Thomas and H. Ui and there is also Sanskrit reconstruction along with an English translation of this work in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1918, vols 1-2, pp. 267-310.^[19] Some contemporary scholars say that Hastavālaprakaraṇa was made by Āryadeva, not Diṅnāga.^[20]

4. Upādāyaprajñaptiprakaraṇa or Prajñaptihetusaṃgrahaśāstra–This work is available only in Chinese which was translated by Yijing. The work aims to demonstrate phenomena which exist as mere empirical denominations (prajñaptasat). They are not real ones. H. Kitagawa translated this work into English and H. Ui into Japnese.^[21]

5. Sāmānyalakṣaṇaparīkṣā (or Sarvalakṣaṇadhyānaśāstrakārikā, Nanjio’s Catalogue of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, 1229) -This is a short and difficult work on logic preserved in an incomplete Chinese version.

6. Ālambanaparīkṣāvṛtti -This is a commentary on Ālambana-Parīkṣā written by Diṅnāga. This work in Tibetan is known as Drigs-pa-brtag-pahis-hgrel. The Tibetan work is preserved but the Sanskrit work is seemed to be lost. It was translated into Chinese by Xuanzang and into Tibetan by Śāntākaragupta.

7. Nyāyamukha or Nyāyadvāra–It is a treatise of logic which is available in two Chinese versions: the first was translated by Xuanzang which is (T. 1628, Nanjio’s Catalogue of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, 1224); and the second translated by Yijing which is (T. 1629; Nanjio’s Catalogue of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka 1223). H. Ui translated this work into Japanese and G. Tucci into English.^[22]

The other works of Diṅnāga which are available only in Tibetan Tripiṭaka are:

8. Miśraka-stotra (Tibetan Spel-mar bstod-pa shes-bya-ba) (Tōhoku, 1150)–The “Mixed” hymn, which was mentioned by Yijing in Nanhai jigui neifa chuan. Kumārakalaśa translated the Tibetan version and D.R. Shackleton Bailey edited Bsod-nams bzaṅ-po.^[23] The Tibetan catalogue suggests that the authors of this text are both Maticitra (Mātṛceṭa) and Diṅnāga.^[24]

For this text, Yijing wrote:

“He (Diṅnāga) added one verse before each of the one hundred and fifty verses, so that they became altogether three hundred verses, called the “Mixed hymns. A celebrated priest of the Deer park, Sākyadeva by name, again added one verse to each of Gina’s (Diṅnāga), and consequently they amounted to four hundred and fifty verses.”^[25]

9. Guṇaparyantastotraṭīkā (Tibetan Yon-tam mthaḥ-yas-par bstod-paḥi ḥgrelpa) (Tōhoku, 1156) -This is a commentary on the Guṇaparyantastotra of Ratnadāsa. Both Guṇaparyantastotraṭīkā and Guṇaparyantastotrapadakārikā (Tōhoku, 1157) were translated into Tibetan by Dpal-brtsegs rakṣita.^[26]

10. Āryamañjughoṣastotra (Tibetan Ḥphags-pa ḥjam-paḥi-dbyans-kyibstod-pa) (Tōhoku, 2712) -Śraddhākaravarma and Rin-chen bzaṅ-po translated this work into Tibetan.

11. Samantabhadracaryāpraṇidhānārthasaṃgraha (Tibetan Kun-du-bzaṅ-pohi spyodpaḥi smon-lam-gyi don kun-bsdus) (Tōhoku, 4012) -This is a commentary on the Samantabhadracaryāpraṇidhāna, which is the last chapter of the Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra. The translator of the work is not known.

12. Yogāvatāra (Tibetan Rnal-ḥbyor-la ḥjug-pa) (Tōhoku, 4074) -The Tibetan translation was done by Dharmaśrībhadra and Rin-chen bzaṅ-po. The work discusses about the practice of Yoga from an idealistic view. The Sanskrit text has been edited by V-Bhattacharya, Indian Historical Quarterly IV, 1928, pp.775-778. M. Hattori translated the work into Japanese.^[27]

13. Abhidharmamarmapradīpa (The title is suggested by F. Tola and C. Dragonetti), Abhidharmakośa-Marmadīpa (Mentioned by M. Hattori)^[28], Abhidharmavṛttimarmapradīpa-nāma (EB)^[29] (Tibetan Chos mṅon-paḥi ḥgrel-pa gnad-kyi sgon-me shes-bya-ba) (Tōhoku, 4095)—The work is a summary of the Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu. The Tibetan version of the text is available. H. Sakurabe carried out a study of this work.^[30]

14. Pramāṇasamuccaya-This is a systematic exposition of Logic, epistemology and Semantics, that unites the research of Diṅnāga. It is regarded as one of the greatest literary monument. This original work was written in Sanskrit which is seemed to be lost. There are two Tibetan versions of the Pramāṇasamuccaya (Tibetan Tshadma kun-las btus-pa): the first was done by Vasudhararakṣita and Ṣa-ma rgyal (Tōhoku. 4203), and the second was done by Kanakavarman and Dad-pa śes-rab (Peking ed., vol. 130, no. 5700).^[31] The Tibetan translation is preserved in Tibet.

According to Dr. S.C. Vidyabhusana, the work is consisted of six chapters. Chapter one deals with perception (pratyakṣa). Chapter two deals with inference for one’s own self (svārthānumāna). Chapter three is devoted to inference for the sake of others (parārthānumāna), chapter four discusses about reason and example (hētu-dṛṣṭāna). Chapter five deals with negation of the opposite (apoha) and last chapter deals with analogue (jāti). In the first chapter Diṅnāga gives detail explanation on pratyakṣa and criticises the views on pramāṇa given in Nyāyasūtra by Gautama. In the last chapter he discusses twelve categories of analogues in detail. Some parts of this work were reconstructed into Sanskrit by H.R. Iyengar, M. Hattori and Muni Jambūvijayī. Some modern translations are also made by H. Kitagawa, M. Hattori^[32] and R.P. Hayes^[33]. Further, there is a commentary on Pramāṇasamuccaya known as Pramāṇasamuccaya-vṛtti which was written by Diṅnāga. The Sanskrit version of the work is seemed to be lost. An Indian scholar king Vasudharā-rakṣita prepared the Tibetan translation. It is known as Tshad-ma-kon-las-btus-pahi-hgrel-wa, in Tibetan language. The work consists of six chapters which are similar to Pramāṇasamuccaya. The Indian sage Hema varma also translated Pramāṇasamuccaya-vṛtti.

15. Trikālaparīkṣā (Tibetan Dus-gsum-brtag-pa shes-bya-ba) (Tōhoku, 4207)–The work consists of thirty three stanzas on epistemology. The Sanskrit original of this work seems to be lost. The Tibetan language work is written by the great pandit Śantākaragupta and Tshul-khrims rgyal-mtshan. This text constitutes an imitation of the verses 53-87 of the chapter Saṃbandhasamuddeśa of Bhartṛhari’s Vākyapadīya. There are not many differences between the work of Bhartṛhari and that of Diṅnāga. Frauwallner and M. Hattori did the comparative studies of these two works.^[34]

16. Hetucakraḍamaru-It is a small treatise on logic. Like Pramāṇasamuccaya and Nyāyapraveśa its original work (written in Sanskrit) is not seen. The Tibetan translation was composed by the sage Bodhisattva of Za-hor and the Bhiksu Dharma śoka. The work is preserved in the collection of Tibetan manuscripts. In Tibetan it is known as Gtan-tshigs-kyi-ḥkhor-lo-gtan-la-dbab-pa means “wheel of reasons put in order.” The work discusses all nine possible relations between middle and major terms.

17. Nyāyaparīkṣā

18. Vaiśeṣikaparīkṣā

19. Sāṃkhyaparīkṣā

The names of these three treatises are introduced by Diṅnāga in Pramāṇasamuccaya-vṛtti:

“I have shown only partially the defects found in the theories maintained by others concerning the true demonstration and refutation and false ones. The detailed refutation of these theories as well as of those concerning the object of the means of cognition should be understood from [what I have said] in the Nyāyaparīkṣā, Vaiśeṣikaparīkṣā and Sāṃkhyaparīkṣā.”

The Nyāyaparīkṣā is mentioned in Śāntarakṣita’s Vādanyāyaṭīka, while the Sāṃkhyaparīkṣā is mentioned in the Nyāyamukha.^[35]

20. Hetumukha - Kamalaśīla mentions two short sentences from this work in his Tattvasaṃgrahapañjikā and he credits this work to Diṅnāga.^[36]

21. Hetvābhāsamukha - According to Yijing this is one of the eight works on logic by Diṅnāga.

22. Sāmānyaparīkṣā.

23. Dvādaśaṭīkā.^[37]

Other works ascribed to Diṅnāga:

24. Nyāyapraveśa (T, 1630; Tōhoku, 4208 [translated from Chinese version]; Nanjio’s Catalogue of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, 1216) -According to V. Bhattacharya and S.C. Vidyabhusana this text is written by

Diṅnāga^[38], while according to Taisō Shinshu, the author of this work is Śaṅkarasvāmin. It is a great work on logic. Dr. S.C. Vidyabhusana maintains that the original work which was written in Sanskrit is lost. The Tibetan translation of the work is available which was translated by a great scholar Sarvajñasriraksita. He was from Kashmir. In Tibetan the work is called Tsad-ma-rigs-par-hjus-pahi-sgo means “Door of entrance to logic”. The work discusses the fourteen types of syllogism.

25. Vādavidhānaṭīkā

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

L.M. Joshi, Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of In dia, p.184.

[2]:

The History of Buddhism in India and Tibet by Bu-ston (translated by E.Obermiller) and Tāranātha’s History of Buddhism in India translated by Lama C.A. Chattopadhyaya are two essential works relating to the life of Diṅnāga.

[3]:

D. Chattopadhyaya (ed.), Tāranātha’s History of Buddhism in India, p.181.

[4]:

E. Obermiller, The History of Buddhism in India and Tibet by Bu-ston, p.149.

[5]:

For this verse Obermiller mentions that the first half of this verse is in original Sanskrit in Yaśomitra’s Abhidharmakośavyākhayā and the second half is preserved from Tibetan by H.R.R. Iyengar. EB, IV, p. 619.

[6]:

E. Obermiller, op.cit, p.150. D. Chattopadhyaya, op.cit, p.183.

[7]:

D. Chattopadhyaya, Ibid., p.183.

[8]:

E. Obermiller, op.cit, p.151.

[9]:

D. Chattopadhyaya, Ibid., p.184.

[10]:

Ibid., p.185.

[11]:

Ibid.

[12]:

Ibid., p.182. E. Obermiller, op.cit, p.149. Th. Stcherbatsky, op.cit, Vol.I, p. 32.

[13]:

M. Hattori, op.cit, p.32.

[14]:

Ibid., p.114.

[15]:

S.C. Vidyabhusana, History of the Mediaeval School of Indian Logic, pp. 81-82.

[16]:

The Sanskrit and Tibetan texts were edited by G. Tucci, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1947, pp. 53-75 together with an English translation.

[17]:

Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, 1942, pp. 483-4.

[18]:

F. Tola, C. Dragonetti, Ibid., p.10.

[19]:

F.Tola, C. Dragonetti, op.cit, pp. 8-9.

[20]:

T.R.V. Murti, The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, p. 94.

[21]:

F. Tola, C. Dragonetti, op.cit, pp. 8-9.

[22]:

Ibid., p.5.

[23]:

Ibid. M. Hattori, op.cit., p.6.

[24]:

EBC, IV, P.623.

[25]:

Ibid.

[26]:

M. Hattori, op.cit., p.7.

[27]:

M. Hattori, Ibid. F. Tola, C. Dragonetti, op.cit, p.9.

[28]:

M. Hattori, Ibid., p.8.

[29]:

EBC, IV, p.623.

[30]:

F. Tola, C. Dragonetti, op.cit, pp.3-4.

[31]:

M. Hattori, op.cit, p.13.

[32]:

The first chapter of Pramāṇasamuccaya is introduced and translated into English by M. Hattori, Ibid.

[33]:

The second and the fifth chapter of Pramāṇasamuccaya is translated into English by Hayes. R.P. Hayes, Dignaga on the interpretations of Signs.

[34]:

F. Tola, C. Dragonetti, Ibid., p.8.

[35]:

M. Hattori, op.cit., p.9.

[36]:

Ibid., p.10.

[37]:

Ibid., p.10.

[38]:

V. Bhattacharya edited the Tibetan text in the Gaekwad’s Oriental Series of Baroda under the title of Nyāyapraveśa of Ācārya Diṅnāga, 1927. S.C. Vidyabhusana, History of Indian Logic, 289 ff.