Pariksha, Parīkṣā, Parikṣā: 31 definitions
Introduction:
Pariksha means something in Hinduism, Sanskrit, Jainism, Prakrit, the history of ancient India, Marathi, Hindi. If you want to know the exact meaning, history, etymology or English translation of this term then check out the descriptions on this page. Add your comment or reference to a book if you want to contribute to this summary article.
The Sanskrit terms Parīkṣā and Parikṣā can be transliterated into English as Pariksa or Pariksha, using the IAST transliteration scheme (?).
Images (photo gallery)
In Hinduism
Vaisheshika (school of philosophy)
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) means the “examination” of a topic, and refers to one of the three methods of expositions laid down in the Nyāyabhāṣya (verse 1.1.2) by Vātsyāyana.
Investigation, (parīkṣā) consists in disquisition upon the pertinence and sufficiency of the definition.
Vaisheshika (वैशेषिक, vaiśeṣika) refers to a school of orthodox Hindu philosophy (astika), drawing its subject-matter from the Upanishads. Vaisheshika deals with subjects such as logic, epistemology, philosophy and expounds concepts similar to Buddhism in nature
Purana and Itihasa (epic history)
Parikṣā (परिक्षा) refers to a “test” (viz., ‘testing’ the divinity of Rāma), according to the Śivapurāṇa 2.2.24. Accordingly as Brahmā narrated to Nārada:—“[...] on realising that her mind was not convinced, Śiva, the eternal lord, who is shrewd in the divine sports which He indulges in, spoke these words:—Śiva said: ‘O Goddess [Satī], if your mind is not convinced, listen to my words. You can test (parikṣā) the divinity of Rāma yourself, using your own intelligence. O beloved Satī, he is standing there beneath the Vaṭa tree. You can test him and proceed until your delusion is quelled”.
Going there at Śiva’s bidding, Satī the Goddess thought—“How shall I test (parikṣā) Rāma the forest-roamer. I shall assume the form of Sītā and shall go to him. If Rāma is Viṣṇu, he will know it and otherwise not. Deciding like this she who was deluded by Śiva became Sītā and went there to test him.’ On seeing Satī, in the guise of Sītā, Rāma the scion of Raghu’s race repeated the name Śiva, realised the truth and laughed [...]”.
The Purana (पुराण, purāṇas) refers to Sanskrit literature preserving ancient India’s vast cultural history, including historical legends, religious ceremonies, various arts and sciences. The eighteen mahapuranas total over 400,000 shlokas (metrical couplets) and date to at least several centuries BCE.
Ayurveda (science of life)
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा):—Investigation or examinations which leads to correct knowledge
Parīkṣa (परीक्ष) refers to the “evaluation (of the disease)”, according to the Jvaranirṇaya: an Ayurvedic manuscript dealing exclusively with types of jvara (fevers) written by Sri Nārāyaṇa Paṇḍita in the 16th century CE.—The Jvaranirṇaya monograph is available in Devanāgarī script written in 365 verses divided into five sections. [...] The Upotghāta-prakaraṇa is the introductory section of the manuscript which deals with the evaluation of the disease (roga-parīkṣa) with the help of six evaluating factors (ṣaṭ-nidāna) emphasising upaśaya (relieving factors), a component of diagnosis looking at how the body responds to an administered diet, medicine or lifestyle which is elaborated in detail.
Āyurveda (आयुर्वेद, ayurveda) is a branch of Indian science dealing with medicine, herbalism, taxology, anatomy, surgery, alchemy and related topics. Traditional practice of Āyurveda in ancient India dates back to at least the first millenium BC. Literature is commonly written in Sanskrit using various poetic metres.
Vastushastra (architecture)
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) refers to “examination” (i.e., of the soil-conditions), according to the Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra.—Out of its eighty- three chapters, in its first forty-eight chapters, it treats three principal subjects. Firstly in the first seven chapters together with the forty-fourth and forty-fifth, the introductory subjects like need, origin, schools, scope and subject-matter of architecture and qualifications of an architect are dealt with. Next follow the regional planning, the surveying of the land, the examination of the soil-conditions (bhū-parikṣā 8) and the system of measurements (Hastalakṣaṇa 9) and the detailed canons of town-planning (Puraniveśa 10) together with the site-plans (II to 14 as well as 38), of the different categories of the Vāstupadas fit to be employed in towns and temples as well as the houses residential and the palaces of kings. Thirdly, it deals with the house-architecture (civil arcitecture or popular architecture or more appropriately the secular architecture as opposed to religious or devotional architecture, the temple-architecture) in the subsequent thirty chapters.
1a) Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) refers to the “examination (of the soil)”, as discussed in chapter 1 (Kriyāpāda) of the Padmasaṃhitā: the most widely followed of Saṃhitā covering the entire range of concerns of Pāñcarātra doctrine and practice (i.e., the four-fold formulation of subject matter—jñāna, yoga, kriyā and caryā) consisting of roughly 9000 verses.—Description of the chapter [grāma-svīkāra]:—[...] Together with a skilled craftsman the three select a suitable site, perform a ritual examination of the soil (bhū-parīkṣā), testing it for various qualities of fertility, consistency, taste and color and then perform praveśabali-rites with offerings and a procession (20-47). Then pegs and strings are laid to mark off the plot, and a pacification of vāstupuruṣa is sought with homa-offerings, followed by a bali-offering (48-55).
1b) Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) refers to “examination” (of a plot for building a temple), as discussed in chapter 2 of the Mārkaṇḍeyasaṃhitā: a Pāñcarātra text comprising some 2200 Sanskrit verses mainly dealing with temple-building, iconography, pūjā (worship procedures), utsava (festivities) and prāyaścitta (expiatory measures).—Description of chapter [bhū-parīkṣā]: For selecting a place to build a temple, only certain acceptable kinds of land should be considered (1-10). Once a plot has been selected (parīkṣā), then some rites must be performed, including a ritual ploughing and invocation of God’s Presence (11-27). [...]
1c) Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) refers to “examination” (of the plot), as discussed in chapter 1 of the Viṣvaksenasaṃhitā: a Pāñcarātra text comprising 2800 Sanskrit verses dealing with theological matters, image-worship, iconography (relating to pratimā-icons) and the construction of temples.—Description of the chapter [bhū-parīkṣā]: The narrator turns here to the concerns of examining (parīkṣā) the plot on which a temple is to be built. Once selected, rituals of pacification are to be undertaken by making homa-offerings and reciting mantras followed, next day, by plotting out the plan of the future temple with pegs and string (1-20). [...]4)
2) Parīkṣa (परीक्ष) refers to the “testing (of stones)”, as discussed in chapter 6 of the Śrīpraśnasaṃhitā: a Pāñcarātra text comprising 5500 Sanskrit verses covering a number of subjects ranging from selecting a temple site through building and furnishing it to sanctifying and maintaining worship in the sacred complex.—Description of the chapter [śilādiparīkṣādi]: There are stone temples, brick temples, wooden temples and mud temples—in that order of descending preference—and in all cases the materials used in construction should be new and pure, and the “first bricks” used should follow certain conventions in each case (1-10). [...]
Vastushastra (वास्तुशास्त्र, vāstuśāstra) refers to the ancient Indian science (shastra) of architecture (vastu), dealing with topics such architecture, sculpture, town-building, fort building and various other constructions. Vastu also deals with the philosophy of the architectural relation with the cosmic universe.
Yoga (school of philosophy)
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) refers to the “(eight) tests (of yoga)”, according to the Aṣṭaparīkṣā by Gorakhnāth, which is included in the collection of manuscripts at the ‘Vincenzo Joppi’ library, collected by Luigi Pio Tessitori during his visit to Rajasthan between 1914 and 1919.—There are eight tests, each defined with four terms, hence the alternate titles. the ms. and the edition also differ slightly in the sequence of the eight ‘tests’: gyāna, vicāra, bameka, saṃtoṣa, nirabala, sahaja, sīla, suṃni (ed.). The terms defining sahaja in the manuscript are those defining nirabala (corresponding heading here nivira) in edition. In edition the poem finishes with a verse stating that this ‘eight-fold Yoga test is a defining mark of bhakti’.
Yoga is originally considered a branch of Hindu philosophy (astika), but both ancient and modern Yoga combine the physical, mental and spiritual. Yoga teaches various physical techniques also known as āsanas (postures), used for various purposes (eg., meditation, contemplation, relaxation).
Kama-shastra (the science of Love-making)
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) [=Rūpyaratnaparīkṣā] refers to “(the ability of) testing (gold and silver)”, and represents one of the sixty-four arts (aṅgavidyā), according to the Vātsyāyana’s Kāmasūtra: a Sanskrit text from the 2nd century dealing with eroticism, sexuality and emotional fulfillment in life belonging to Kāmaśāstra (the ancient Indian science of love-making).—Accordingly, “[While defending the standpoint that women should be allowed to learn theoratical science] [...] A female should study alone in private the sixty-four practices, arts and sciences (such as testing precious metals and stones—rūpyaratna-parīkṣā), together with the Kama Sutra. [...] A public woman, endowed with a good disposition, beauty and other winning qualities, and also versed in such arts (e.g., rūpyaratna-parīkṣā), obtains the name of a Gaṇikā (i.e., “a public woman of high quality”), and receives a seat of honour in an assemblage of men. She is, moreover, always respected by the king, and praised by learned men, and her favour being sought for by all, she becomes an object of universal regard”.
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) refers to the “knowledge of testing” (of precious metals and stones).—Cf. Rūpyaratnaparīkṣā which refers to one of the “sixty four kinds of Art”, according to the Kāmasūtra of Vātsyāyaṇa.—Indian tradition, basically includes sixty four Art forms are acknowledged. The references of sixty four kinds of kalā are found in the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, Śaiva-Tantras, Kāmasūtra of Vātsyāyaṇa etc.
Kamashastra (कामशास्त्र, kāmaśāstra) deals with ancient Indian science of love-making, passion, emotions and other related topics dealing with the pleasures of the senses.
Shyanika-shastra (the science of Hawking and Hunting)
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) refers to the “examination (of diseases)” (of Hawks), according to the Śyainika-śāstra: a Sanskrit treatise dealing with the divisions and benefits of Hunting and Hawking, written by Rājā Rudradeva (or Candradeva) in possibly the 13th century.—Accordingly, [while discussing the importance of hawks]: “Now will be described the quantity of their food, the way of tending them at different seasons, their diseases (roga-parīkṣā) and their cure. Twenty-five ṭaṅkas of fresh flesh is quite enough for a Kuhī, Caraka, Vāja, and Vaharī. The Śaśādas should not be given less, for they are incapable of fasting. [...]”.
Shyanika-shastra (श्यैनिकशास्त्र, śyainikaśāstra) deals with ancient Indian skill of hawking/falconry (one of the ways of hunting) which were laid down in a systematic manner in various Sanskrit treatises. It also explains the philosophy behind how the pleasures derived from sense-experience could lead the way to liberation.
Dharmashastra (religious law)
Parīkṣa (परीक्ष) refers to “examining (the suitability of a girl or a bride-groom)” and represents one of the various Marriage Rites (saṃskāra) outlined in the Gṛhya-sūtras.—The main outlines of the marriage saṃskāra show a remarkable continuity for several thousand years from the times of the Rig Veda down to modern times.—Vadhuvara-guṇa-parīkṣa refers to “examining the suitability of a girl or a bride-groom”.—The smṛtis contain several views about the suitability of these eight to various varnas. All are agreed that the first four, Brāhma, Daiva, Ārṣa and Prajāpatya, are the approved forms (praśasta or dhārmya). Most say that each preceding one out of the first four is superior to each succeeding one and that thus Brāhma is the best. Almost all are agreed that Paiśāca is the worst.—[Cf. Manu III.2326]
Dharmashastra (धर्मशास्त्र, dharmaśāstra) contains the instructions (shastra) regarding religious conduct of livelihood (dharma), ceremonies, jurisprudence (study of law) and more. It is categorized as smriti, an important and authoritative selection of books dealing with the Hindu lifestyle.
Pancaratra (worship of Nārāyaṇa)
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) or Śiṣyaparīkṣā refers to the “selection (of an initiate)”, as discussed in chapter 1 of the Pauṣkarasaṃhitā: a Pāñcarātra text of almost 5900 verses divided into forty-three chapters presented as a frame-work dialogue between Pauṣkara and Bhagavān dealing with the esoteric meaning of maṇḍala-designs, worship routines and temple-building.—Description of the chapter [śiṣyaparīkṣā-lakṣaṇa]: An initiate must first approach his preceptor in the Pāñcarātra in the traditional way. The initiation into Pāñcarātra requires four years progressive mastery over (each of) four maṇḍalas—[...].
Pancaratra (पाञ्चरात्र, pāñcarātra) represents a tradition of Hinduism where Narayana is revered and worshipped. Closeley related to Vaishnavism, the Pancaratra literature includes various Agamas and tantras incorporating many Vaishnava philosophies.
In Jainism
General definition (in Jainism)
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) refers to “examination” (of the doctrine), according to the 11th century Jñānārṇava, a treatise on Jain Yoga in roughly 2200 Sanskrit verses composed by Śubhacandra.—Accordingly, “Those who have adopted a heterodox doctrine, lacking in [knowledge of the highest] reality, proclaim various doctrines. They are not aware of the reality of things because they are not competent to examine that [doctrine] (tat-parīkṣā-akṣama) . The doctrine is said to be forbearance, humility, purity, straightforwardness, truth and restraint, celibacy, asceticism, renunciation and non-possession”.
Jainism is an Indian religion of Dharma whose doctrine revolves around harmlessness (ahimsa) towards every living being. The two major branches (Digambara and Svetambara) of Jainism stimulate self-control (or, shramana, ‘self-reliance’) and spiritual development through a path of peace for the soul to progess to the ultimate goal.
India history and geography
Parīkṣa (same as Parīkṣaka) possibly meant an inspector attached to some administrative department.
Parīkṣā.—(IE 8-3; EI 28, 31), same as Sanskrit Parīkṣaka; Sans- kritised from Od8iyā Parichā; superintendent of a department or a governor; cf. Dvāra-parīkṣā. Note: parīkṣā is defined in the “Indian epigraphical glossary” as it can be found on ancient inscriptions commonly written in Sanskrit, Prakrit or Dravidian languages.
--- OR ---
Parīkṣā.—(IA 10), same as divya, an ordeal. (CII 1), self-examination. Note: parīkṣā is defined in the “Indian epigraphical glossary” as it can be found on ancient inscriptions commonly written in Sanskrit, Prakrit or Dravidian languages.
The history of India traces the identification of countries, villages, towns and other regions of India, as well as mythology, zoology, royal dynasties, rulers, tribes, local festivities and traditions and regional languages. Ancient India enjoyed religious freedom and encourages the path of Dharma, a concept common to Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism.
Languages of India and abroad
Marathi-English dictionary
parīkṣā (परीक्षा).—f (S) Examination, investigation, experiment, trial; putting to the test or proof. 2 Knowledge, skill, ability, as acquired from practice or conversancy. Ex. vaidyālā rōgācī pa0 asāvī. 3 Experimental knowledge, experience. pa0 karaṇēṃ, pa0 ghēṇēṃ To try or prove. These two phrases, thus agreeing in the general, are yet to be distinguished. The first signifies To try, prove, or determine by examination or experiment; the second To prove by trial upon one's own person, to determine by experience.
parīkṣā (परीक्षा).—f Examination, experiment, trial. Putting to the test or proof. Know- ledge, skill. Experimental know- ledge, experience.
Marathi is an Indo-European language having over 70 million native speakers people in (predominantly) Maharashtra India. Marathi, like many other Indo-Aryan languages, evolved from early forms of Prakrit, which itself is a subset of Sanskrit, one of the most ancient languages of the world.
Sanskrit dictionary
Parikṣā (परिक्षा).—Clay, mud.
--- OR ---
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा).—
1) Examination, test, trial; पत्तने विद्यमानेऽपि ग्रामे रत्नपरीक्षा (pattane vidyamāne'pi grāme ratnaparīkṣā) M.1; Manusmṛti 9.19.
2) Trial by various kinds of ordeals (in law).
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा).—Sanskrit, investigation, testing, of valuable things: Divyāvadāna mentions eight parīkṣā in the cliché cited s.v. udgha- ṭaka, q.v., 3.19 etc., and ghaṭaka; single complete lists are rare but by combining the Divyāvadāna lists preceding oc- currences of the cliché it seems that we get vastu-, dāru-, ratna-, hasti-, aśva-, kumāra- (or puruṣa-), kumārī (°rikā-, or strī-), and vastra- (442.1, in a list also containing vastu-) parīkṣā; these all occur, in different order, Mūla-Sarvāstivāda-Vinaya iii.20.3 ff.
Parikṣā (परिक्षा).—f.
(-kṣā) Mud, dirt.
--- OR ---
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा).—f.
(-kṣā) 1. Discrimination, investigation, examination, test, trial, experiment. 2. Trial by ordeal of various kinds: see divya. E. pari intensitive prefix, before, īkṣ to see, affs. aṅ and ṭāp; looking into any thing or person closely and minutely.
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा).—i. e. pari-īkṣ + a, f. Examination, test, [Mānavadharmaśāstra] 9, 19.
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा).—[feminine] the same.
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा) as mentioned in Aufrecht’s Catalogus Catalogorum:—Vaiyākaraṇasiddhāntabhūṣaṇasāraṭīkā by Bhairava Miśra.
1) Parikṣā (परिक्षा):—[=pari-kṣā] f. (√kṣai) clay, mud, dirt, [cf. Lexicographers, esp. such as amarasiṃha, halāyudha, hemacandra, etc.]
2) Parīkṣā (परीक्षा):—[from parīkṣ] f. inspection, investigation, examination, test, trial by ordeal of various kinds (See 2. divya), [Manu-smṛti; Mahābhārata] etc.
3) [v.s. ...] Name of [work]
1) Parikṣā (परिक्षा):—(kṣā) 1. f. Mud, dirt.
2) Parīkṣā (परीक्षा):—[parī+kṣā] (kṣā) 1. f. Discrimination; test, trial; temptation.
Parikṣā (परिक्षा):—f. Koth, Dreck [ŚABDĀRTHAK.] bei [WILSON.]
--- OR ---
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा):—(wie eben) f.
1) Prüfung, Untersuchung [Manu’s Gesetzbuch 9, 19.] [Nalopākhyāna 19, 11. 23, 2.] [Arjunasamāgama 4, 28.] [Mahābhārata 1, 739. 742. 3, 1058. 13, 1582. 4536. 1, 132] und [13, 37] in den Unterschrr. der Adhy. [Rāmāyaṇa 5, 90, 9.] [Suśruta 1, 119, 8. 135, 4.] pattane sati grāme ratnaparīkṣā [Mālavikāgnimitra 13, 16.] vajra Titel des 81ten Adhy. in [Varāhamihira’s Bṛhajjātaka S.] [Rājataraṅgiṇī.1,128.5,131. 440.] [Kathāsaritsāgara.5,134.] [Bhāgavatapurāṇa.9,24,31.] [Pañcatantra] [?II,119. 92,7. 108,25. 187,4. Madhusūdanasarasvatī’s Prasthānabheda in Weber’s Indische Studien.1,18,3 v. u. Oxforder Handschriften 86,a,4. fgg. Hemacandra’s Abhidhānacintāmaṇi 740. Mitākṣarā 145,2. Scholiast zu Kapila.1,56. zu Jaimini.1,2. Siddhāntakaumudī zu Pāṇini’s acht Bücher.4,4,63.] Vgl. vāstu, niṣparīkṣa . —
2) Titel eines Commentars zu Piṅgala’s Metrik [Colebrooke II, 64.]
--- OR ---
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा):—
1) kṣama die Probe bestehend, stichhaltig [SARVADARŚANAS. 119, 20. 140, 19.]
Parikṣa (परिक्ष):—m. Nomen proprium v.l. für parikṣit [Wilson's Uebersetzung des Viṣṇupurāṇa ,4,162.]
--- OR ---
Parikṣā (परिक्षा):—f. Koth , Dreck.
--- OR ---
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा):—f. —
1) Prüfung , Untersuchung. —
2) Titel eines Commentars.
Parīkṣa (परीक्ष) in the Sanskrit language is related to the Prakrit words: Parikkha, Parikkhā, Paricchā.
Sanskrit, also spelled संस्कृतम् (saṃskṛtam), is an ancient language of India commonly seen as the grandmother of the Indo-European language family (even English!). Closely allied with Prakrit and Pali, Sanskrit is more exhaustive in both grammar and terms and has the most extensive collection of literature in the world, greatly surpassing its sister-languages Greek and Latin.
Hindi dictionary
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा):—(nf) an examination, test; trial; -[kāla] the hour of examination; examination days; -[paddhati/praṇālī] examination system; -[bhavana] examination hall; -[śulka] examination fee; —[kā mādhyama] medium of examination; -[sudhāra] examination reform.
...
Nepali dictionary
Parīkṣā (परीक्षा):—n. 1. examination; inspection; investigation; 2. trial; test; experiment; 3. taste;
Nepali is the primary language of the Nepalese people counting almost 20 million native speakers. The country of Nepal is situated in the Himalaya mountain range to the north of India.
See also (Relevant definitions)
Partial matches (+0): Ksha, Pari.
Starts with (+20): Pareekshan-darta, Pareekshan-kaal, Pareekshan-nalee, Pariksha-bhavana, Pariksha-bhawan, Pariksha-niyantrak, Pariksha-niyantraka, Pariksha-pramukh, Pariksha-pramukha, Pariksha-sancalaka, Pariksha-sancalana, Pariksha-sanchaalak, Pariksha-sanchaalan, Pariksha-shakha, Pariksha-vibhaag, Pariksha-vibhaga, Parikshak, Parikshaka, Parikshakemdra, Parikshakshama.
Full-text (+214): Agnipariksha, Nadipariksha, Ratnapariksha, Sakshipariksha, Nishpariksha, Alambanapariksha, Nanakapariksha, Udakapariksha, Tulapariksha, Parikshartha, Purushapariksha, Ratnatrayapariksha, Mutrapariksha, Bhupariksha, Parikshakshama, Upapariksha, Karakapariksha, Dharmadharmapariksha, Nareshvarapariksha, Dharmapariksha.
Relevant text
Search found 101 books and stories containing Pariksha, Pari-kṣā, Pari-ksa, Pari-ksha, Parīkṣā, Pariksa, Parikṣā, Parikṣa, Parīkṣa; (plurals include: Parikshas, kṣās, ksas, kshas, Parīkṣās, Pariksas, Parikṣās, Parikṣas, Parīkṣas). You can also click to the full overview containing English textual excerpts. Below are direct links for the most relevant articles:
Garga Samhita (English) (by Danavir Goswami)
Verse 3.6.8 < [Chapter 6 - The Test of Śrī Kṛṣṇa]
Verse 4.11.6 < [Chapter 11 - The Story of the Gopīs that were Residents of...]
International Research Journal of Ayurveda and Yoga
Clinical Application of Pariksa: An Ayurvedic Perspective of Examination < [Vol. 5 No. 1: jan (2022)]
Case Report On Ayurvedic Management of Hair Fall < [Vol. 4 No. 4: April (2021)]
Correlation of Trividha Pariksha with Chaturvidha Pramana: A Review Article < [Vol. 7 No. 10: Oct (2024)]
Philosophy of Charaka-samhita (by Asokan. G)
Knowledge (pramāṇa) [in Charaka philosophy] < [Chapter 6 - Source of Knowledge (pramāṇa)]
Dialectical terms (14): Investigation (jijñāsā) < [Chapter 7 - Logic and Dialectical Speculations]
The Foundational “Self” (cetanādhātu) < [Chapter 4 - Self (Puruṣa)]
Dictionaries of Indian languages (Kosha)
Page 186 < [English-Gujarati-Hindi (1 volume)]
Page 218 < [Hindi-Assamese-English Volume 2]
Page 215 < [Hindi-Marathi-English Volume 1]
The Suryavamsi Gajapatis of Orissa (by R. Subrahmanyam)
Chapter 6 - Gajapati administrative system
Chapter 7 - Education and Literature during the Gajapati dynasty
A comparative study between Buddhism and Nyaya (by Roberta Pamio)
3. Ācārya Diṅnāga and His works < [Chapter 3 - The Buddhist Theory of Perception]
4. Ācārya Dharmakīrti and His Works < [Chapter 3 - The Buddhist Theory of Perception]