Historical Elements (2): Archaeology

Archaeology has contributed a lot to the history of ancient India and its importance cannot be over-emphasized. Indian archaeology is a science of recent growth but it has made wonderful progress during that brief period. The pioneer work was done by Europeans but the same is being carried on now by the Indians. The study of Indian antiquities was initiated by scholars like Sri William Jones who founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1774. A large number of ancient inscriptions were collected but those could not be deciphered on account of the ignorance of the script but that difficulty was solved by Jones Prinsep in 1838 by his discovery of the Brahmi Script. After that discovery, the task of deciphering the inscriptions became an easy one and a lot of work was done by scholars like Fergusson, Cunningham, Rajendra Lal Mitra, and Bhau Daji. The greatest contribution was made by General Cunningham who was appointed in 1862 as the archaeological Surveyor to the Government. He devoted about half a century to the study of ancient Indian history. By his personal investigations, he gave us a lot of information regarding the geography of ancient India. He collected a large number of Indian coins. Digging was also started at places like Bodh-Gaya, Bharhut, Sanchi, Sarnath and Taxila.

Lord Curzon set up a separate department of Archaeology and appointed Dr. Marshall as the director general of Archaeology. With him were associated scholars like Dr. Vogel, Dr. Stein, Dr. Bloch and Dr. Spooner. Under the direction and supervision of Dr. Marshall, the ancient sites of Taxila covering an area of about 25 Sq. miles were excavated and a lot of useful information was collected. The ancient city of Pataliputra was excavated by Dr. Spooner but much information could not be found on account of water logging. Dr. Spooner also started the excavation of the Buddhist sites of the Nalanda University and a lot of material was secured within the next two decades. In 1922–23, R. D. Banerjee started the work of excavation at Mohenjodaro in Sindhu. Work was also done at Harappa and the information got from Harappa and Mohenjodaro was collected together and Sri John Marshall wrote his monumental work on the Indus Valley civilization. A lot of work was done by Aurel Stein in Baluchistan, Kashmir and Chinese Turkestan. N. G. Majumdar and Dr. Mackay also made their contribution to our knowledge of Indus-Valley Civilization. A lot of archaeological work is being carried on at present in various parts of India.

a. Inscription:

Under the heading of archaeology, we may discuss the information derived from inscription, numismatics and monuments. As regards inscriptions they are of very great value. As they are engraved on stones and metals, they cannot be tampered with without detection. Consequently, we can be sure while using the material from inscriptions that they contain what was originally written. While in the case of books, there is the possibility of interpolations by known and unknown authors, that is not the case with inscriptions. Their genuineness cannot be doubted. The inscriptions also give us a correct idea of the method of writing followed at a time when they were actually inscribed. The character of their script also enables us to fix their approximate age and location can also throw some valuable light. The difficulty of deciphering inscriptions has been overcome in most of the cases although the script of the Indus-Valley Civilization still remains a mystery.

If we analyze the contents of inscriptions, they can be grouped under the following heads: Commercial, magical, religious and didactic, administrative, eulogistic, votive or dedicative, donative, commemorative and literary. As regards commercial inscriptions, their specimens are to be found on the seals of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of these seals must have been used for the stamping of bales of merchandise, commodities like potteries, etc. “It is impossible that the shorter inscriptions (on the seals) are simply the owner’s name and longer ones include titles that the owner of the 69

seal happen to passes.” These seals may have been used by seafaring traders engaged in foreign trade. It seems that Nigamas and Sreins which were commercial organizations had the power of minting their coin and they must have processed seals to be used for commercial purposes. Their record on perishable materials must have disappeared. However, there are references to the use of seals for commercial purposes in other inscriptions, e.g., the Mandasore Stone Inscription of the time of Kumaragupta and Bandhuvarman (Malwa Era 529).

Some specimens of magical inscriptions are found in the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan seals which were used as amulets and contained magical formula on them. The seals have not been deciphered as yet and it is difficult to know their contents. However, they are very likely to contain the names of the deities which are represented by the animals. The animals represented on the amulets are the antelope, buffalo, brahmi, bull, composite animal, elephant, goat hare, human figure, monkey, rhinoceros, short-horned bull and tiger. Some of the deities represented by them are the moon, Yama, Shiva, Indra, Brahma and Durga. It is to be observed that magical formula continued to be written on metals as well as on birch-bark (Bhojapatra) and other materials.

Religious and didactic inscriptions deal with religious and moral matters. Possibly some of the seals and tablets of the Indus Valley Civilization were objects of worship and were not used as amulets. The inscriptions of Asoka are the best specimen of the religious and didactic inscriptions. The edicts of Asoka are appropriately called ‘Dhamma-Lipi’.

Asoka’s edicts are also a specimen of the administrative inscriptions. An extract from one of his inscriptions reads thus: “Everywhere in my dominions, the Yuktas, the Rajjukas and the Pradesikas shall proceed on circuit every five years as well for his purpose (for the instruction of Dhamma) as for other business.” The Sohgaura copper plate inscription of the third century B.C. is an example of pureadministrative inscription. The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradamana I also contains administrative material. A large number of copper plate inscriptions have been found both in the North and South and they contain many useful administrative details. Reference may be made in this connection to the Banskhera copper plate inscription of Harsha.

As regards the Eulogistic Inscriptions (Prasasti), they are very important from the political point of view. Generally, they contain the name and genealogy of the ruler concerned, the earlier career of the king, his military, political and administrative achievements, the existence of contemporary states coming into conflict with him and the inter-state relations, the administrative system, the political ideals, the personal accomplishment of the king, his patronage, munificence and charity and mythological or Puranic allusions by way of comparison and similar. The one great difficulty in these inscriptions is that there is a tendency on the part of the authors to exaggerate the achievements of their patrons.

Eulogistic inscriptions can be sub-divided into two parts: (I) Pure Eulogy and (II) Eulogy mixed category by themselves. The edicts of Asoka form a category by themselves. The Hatigumpha Inscription of Kharavela of Kaliṅga belongs to the category of pure eulogy. It describes in detail the achievements of Kharavela in a chronological order. To the same category belongs the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta. The number of inscriptions which contain eulogy mixed with other matter is very large. In practically every document of a permanent nature reference is made to the glories of the ruling sovereign and his ancestors. Important specimens of the mixed type are to be found in the Nasik cave inscription of Usavadata, the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradamana I. the Nasik cave inscription of Gautami Balasri, the Mehrauli iron pillar inscription of Chandra, Junagadh rock inscription of Skandagupta, the Bhitari stone pillar inscription of Skandagupta, the Mandasor stone pillar inscription of Yasodharman, the stone inscription of Isanvarman, the Aihole stone inscription of the time of Pulakesin II, the Talagunda stone pillar inscription of the time of Santivarman, the Nagarjunikonda inscriptions of Virapurusdatta, Mandasor stone inscription of the time of Kumaragupta II and Bandhuvarman etc.

We have a large number of votive or dedicative inscriptions. It is possible that some of the tablets found in the Indus Valley Civilization contain votive inscriptions. The Piprahwa vase inscription records the dedication of the relic casket of Lord Buddha. The Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription of Heliodors also belongs to this category. Many of the dedicative inscriptions deal with the installation of images and the construction of temples. Reference may be made in this connection to the Mandasor inscription of the time of Kumaragupta II and Bandhuvarman and the Bhitari pillar inscription of Skandagupta and the Aihole inscription of the time of Pulakesin II.

The number of donative inscriptions is very large as many occasions offered themselves for this purpose to the rulers and the subjects. Some of the inscriptions refer to the donations of caves or other buildings for the residence of monks and ascetics. Some refer to the donation of money in the form of a permanent endowment. Out of these funds, the Brahmans and the needy were fed, lamps were lighted in the temples, etc. In some inscriptions there is a reference to the donation of lands and villages to the monasteries, educational institutions and the Brahmans.

Commemorative inscriptions record such events as birth, death or other important events. The Rummindei inscription of Asoka reads thus: “King Priyadarsin, beloved of the Gods, when he had been consecrated many years, came in person and did worship. Because here the Sakya sage, Buddha, was born, he caused a huge stone wall to be made and a stone pillar to be created.” A large number of commemorative inscriptions refer to the Silaharas of Kohlapur, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Rashtrakutas, the Yadavas, etc. 72

Some inscriptions contain poetic compositions and dramatic works and their purpose is primarily literary. From the Mahanirvana Stupa at Kusinagara in Uttar Pradesh was discovered copper plate containing 13 lines a recording the Udana-Sutta of Buddha.

Inscriptions have been found on stone and copper plates and other materials. Asoka tells us that he got his edicts engraved on stone so that they may last for a long time. Writings on stone were on rocks, pillars, slabs, pedestal or the back of images, rims and lids of vases, caskets, etc., prisms of crystal, walls of temples, pavements of pillars of colonnades, caves, etc.

Copper was the material which was commonly used for the writing of inscriptions. An inscription copperplated was called Tamrapata, Tamrapatra, Tamrasasana, Sasanapattra or Danapattra according to its contents. It is remarkable to not that land-grants were invariably inscribed on copper plates and were handed over to the done so that they may serve as title deeds. Fahien tells us that “He found in many Buddhist monasteries copper plates which referred to the grants of land. Some of them were as old as the time of Buddha”. The discovery of the Sohagaura copper plate of the Mauryan period confirms this statement of Fahien. Hien Tsang tells us that Kanishka summoned a Buddhist council which prepared three commentaries and those commentaries were engraved on copper plates and kept in stone caskets which were placed in the Stupas built over them. It is also stated that the commentaries of Sayana on the Vedas were engraved on copper. Some specimens of books inscribed on copper plates are to be found in the British Museum. The use of copper for writing purposes was not very common up to the sixth century A.D., but it was quite popular for the next six centuries. Copper plates were of different sizes and thickness. Some of them were so thin that they could be bent easily and there were others which were very thick and heavy. The size of a copper plate depended upon the contents of the document and the size of the commonly used writing material in the district where the copper plate was issued. Sometimes a document was inscribed not no one copper plate but on very many and in that case the copper plates were fastened together by means of copper rings. In this way, the copper plates looked like a book which could be opened easily. Sufficient margin was left on the copper plates.

b. Numismatics:

A study of the Indian coins enlightens us a great deal regarding the history of ancient India. The Numismatic society of India is doing a lot of useful work in this connection. We have at present a large number of coins found from various parts of India and dealing with the different aspects of ancient Indian history. Coins are of various metals: gold, silver and copper.

Coins help us to build up the history of the country in many ways. They give us the names of the kings who ruled at various times in different parts of the country. In many cases, the coins are the only information we have regarding the existence of certain kings. Without those coins, the very existence of those kings would have remained unknown. Many a time, the information from the coins can be used to corroborate the evidence from other sources such as the Purāṇas, etc. the coins also help us to fix up the chronology, coins mention the year in which they are issued. The existence of a large number of coined issued during the different years of the reign of a king helps us to fix the exact dates for the accession and the death of the king. Coins have helped us to fix the date of Samudragupta. The location of coins helps us to determine the extent of the territory of a king. The discovery of a large member of Roman coins in India confirms the fact that there was a brisk trade between India and the prosperity of India and the sea-going activities of its people. The figure of the various kings appear on coins and from them we can have an idea regarding the head dress of those kings. Sometimes, the hobbies or the amusements of the rulers can also be known from a study of their coins. Coins give an indication of the prosperity or otherwise of the country. If people have gold or silver coins, they are likely to be prosperous. The case is other-wise, if they have copper coins alone or more of them than those of gold or silver. Sometimes, the depreciation of coinage gives an indication that the country was passing through abnormal times. During the Huna invasion on India, the Gupta currency depreciated. The symbols on the Gupta coinage refer to their zeal for Hinduism. The coins give us genuine information regarding the History of Ancient India as there is no possibility of their being tampered with. Coins were issued by the rulers and other authorities like Srenis, etc. and there is no possibility of their being issued merely to deceive people.

The earliest coins of India have only figures, devices or symbol or no legends. Sometimes, the coins were cast in dies but very often symbols were punched on pieces of metals. The symbols varied from time to time and were punched with a view to guarantee their genuineness and value. On account of the absence of legends on them, much information is not available.

After the Greek invasion of India, the practice of writing the names of the kings on the coins was started. A large number of coins were issued by the Indo-Bactrian rulers who had under their control the Punjab and the North-Western Frontier. These coins possess a high degree of artistic excellence and ultimately had a tremendous influence on Indian coinage. The thing borrowed in the Indian coinage was the name and the portrait of the ruler. The Greek coins refer to about 30 Greek kings and queens who ruled in India. The classical writers refer to only four or five of them and in the absence of these coins, the names of other rulers would have remained absolutely unknown. The coins of the Scythians and Parthians are of inferior quality but they also give us a lot of historical information. Their coins have enabled us to have an outline of the history of their rulers and without them even the outlines would have been missing. A branch of the Scythians settled in Gujarat and Kathiawar and they issued coins in which the names of the ruling kings and their fathers were mentioned in the Saka era. These coins have helped us to reconstruct the history of the western Satraps for more than three centuries. The Kushans also issued a large number of coins. The existence of the Malavas, Yaudheyas and the Mitra rulers of Panchala is known only from the coins. The coins of the Satavahanas supplement correct and corroborate the accounts of the Purāṇas. The Gupta coins also give us a lot of useful information. The coins of Samudragupta are particularly remarkable and a detailed description of them will be given in their proper place. The Indian coins after the Gupta period do not give us much historical information.

According to V. A. Smith and E. J. Rapson, the punch-marked coin represent a private coinage. The view of V. A. Smith is that they were issued by guilds and goldsmiths with the permission of the ruling power. The numerous observe punches were made by different money-changers through whose hands those coins passed. The reverse marks were the signs of approval by the controlling authority. According to E. J. Rapson, the obverse marks were the private marks of the money-changers and the reverse marks denoted locality in which the coins were issued. However, recent researches have proved that the punch-marked coins were issued by a regular public authority. A few of them found at Pataliputra have been ascribed by Dr. K. P. Jayaswal to the age of Chandragupta Maurya. A large number of coins are tobe found in the Government museums and Municipal museums and the private collectors. A critical study of all of them is bound to give a lot of additional evidence.

c. Monuments:

The ancient monuments like buildings, status of stones or metals, terracotta, ornamental and decorative fragments, pottery, etc. give us a lot of useful and reliable information. The excavation of the sites of the old towns like Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Taxila has given us a lot of information hitherto unknown and changed our conception of the history of ancient India. 76

It is after the discovery of the Indus Valley civilization that we began to talk of a civilization in India prior to that of the Aryans. The excavations at Taxila throw flood of light on the Kushans. A study of the sculptures found from there gives us an idea of the Gandhra School of Art. The digging of the old sties of Pataliputra gives us some information regarding the old capital of the Mauryas. The Angkor-Val in Cambodia and Borobodur in Java bear testimony to the colonial and cultural activities of the Indians in ancient times. The temples of Deogadh in Jhansi and Bhitargaon near Kanpur throw light on the artistic activities of the Guptas. The excavations at Sarnath have added to our knowledge regarding Buddhism and Asoka. The excavations in Chinese, Turkestan and Baluchistan by Stein, prove the intimate contacts of India with those territories. The progress of archaeological work in India in future is bound to enrich our knowledge of Ancient Indian History.