2. Religious Elements (a): Dharma

The term ‘religion’ seems to be incomprehensive or limited in comparison with the sense conveyed by the term dharma. It is difficult to present a concrete definition of dharma. A study of the works on dharmaśāstra enables us to state that the word dharma is related to some deeds and duties, customs and conducts, habits and beliefs, ritual and sacrificial functions as well. In a broad sense, the work ‘dharma’ seems to be used. In the Ṛgveda, it is said that the regular word for law or custom is Dharma.^[1] We observe the employment of the word dharma in the different senses in the Smṛtiśāstra also. The Manusmṛti tries to define dharma along with its characteristics from different perspectives. According to Manusmṛti, ācāra^[2] (conduct of the virtuous people) is the basic principle and the Vedas are the main source of dharma.^[3] The Vedas, the smṛtis, sadācāra (good behaviour) and self-content are the four main qualities of dharma itself mentioned in the Manusmṛti^[4]

Dharma is formed by the root dhrya meaning ‘to be’ or ‘to exist’ According to the Mahābhārata^[5] the fundamental principle of dharma seems to live to exist. The same thing is found in the Matsyapurāṇa^[6] also. Dharma is found to be stated to have so many meanings in the Amarakoṣa. At first, it is used to mean puṇya (pure deeds), śreyas (virtue or righteousness), sukṛta (right actions) and vṛṣa (chief or the best of the class).^[7] Secondly it stands for the rites of the vedas^[8], thirdly it is used to mean the first of the four fold (or three fold) puruṣārthas viz.dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa^[9] and finally it is used to mean puṇya, yama (restrain or the good of death), nyāya (judgement), svabhāva (usual behavior), somapā (the gods and yudhiṣṭhira the son of yama and kuntī).^[10] According to Bhāgavatpurāṇa, satya (truth), dayā (kindness), tapas (penance), śauca (purity) etc. are the thirty qualities of dharma by which all human beings are pleased^[11]. As mentioned in the Manusmṛti, the Bhāgavatapurāṇa^[12] also puts stress on the fact that the works recommended by the Vedas are known as dharma and those which are not, they are adharma. Preferring to the usual activities, the Bhāgavatapurāṇa^[13] moreover says that all the duties or the activities according to one’s nature (svabhāva) are dharma. The Bhāgavatapurāṇa also suggests that, ahiṃsā, satya, etc. are the qualities of dharma for all the varnas.^[14] According to the Agnipurāṇa^[15] ahiṃsā (non-violence), sunṛtāvāni (good speech), satyam (truth), śaucam (purty), dayā (kindness), kṣamā (patience for giveness) are the common characteristics of dharma of a varnī (a person of any one of the four varnas) and liṅgī (a religious student). In the Śivapurāṇa^[16] also ahiṃsā is regarded as the best dharma. The Mahābhārata^[17] also refers that ānṛśaṃsa (kindness) as the root of dharma. After this discussion we have observed that all the qualities–viz. satya, dayā ahiṃsā etc. as stated in the Manusmṛti, Bhāgavatapurāṇa, Mahābhārata etc. found to be regarded as daivīsampad (divine wealth or treasure of gods) in the Gītā.^[18] The Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki^[19] also considers satya as the god of this loka (world) and the base of dharma. From all these it may be said that dharma stands for some duties which are reflected in the behavior or conduct of every man. In other words, dharma is the set of some moral duties which are expected to be performed in life. According to Kālidāsa^[20] śarīra (body) is the first to acquire dharma.

Ācāra is the basic principle of dharma. There are two types of ācāras viz. sadācāra and śaucācāra. Sadācāra or śiṣṭācāra includes the rites or conducts related to dāna, satya, tapas etc. while the śaucācāra stands for the purificatory rites.