Concept of Mind in the Major Upanishads

by Gisha K. Narayanan | 2018 | 35,220 words

This page relates ‘The Date and Number of the Upanishads’ of the study on the concept of Mind as found in the Major Upanishads: the philosophical backbone of the four Vedas. This study explores the various characteristics and psychological aspects of the mind (described by the Seers of ancient India thousands of years ago) including awareness (samjna), understanding (vijnana) and knowledge (prajnana).

4. The Date and Number of the Upaniṣads

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The date, number and chronological order of the Upaniṣads are uncertain. S.N. Dasgupta opines that they were constructed by 500 B.C.^[1] Dr. S. Radhakrishnan points out that the Ups. were written before the rise of Buddhism i.e., 600 B.C.^[2] According to R.D. Ranade ‘the Upaniṣadic age has been placed somewhere between 1200B.C.and 600B.C., and it becomes necessary to distribute the Upaniṣadic literature into chronological periods within the general limits that have been so fixed’.^[3] The Upaniṣadic age can be determined by the language, the style, the vocabulary etc; but this cannot be the final word.

The number of Upaniṣads is quite large; some of them are not quite old as the others. According to the Indian tradition, Muktikopaniṣad has arranged all the names of the 108 Ups. All of them are not of equal importance and authority. Among them ten Upaniṣads are reckoned as the important and authoritative ones. These are generally categorized as the major Upaniṣads since the passages from them are extensively employed by Bādarāyaṇa in framing the Vedāntasūtras and also by the three principal commentators on Vedanta, viz., Śankara, Rāmanuja and Madhva in their bhāṣyas. These are Īśa, Kena, Kaṭha, Praśna, Muṇḍaka, Māṇḍūkya, Aitareya, Taittirīya, Bṛhadāraṇyaka and Chāndogya Upaniṣads.^[4] These ten Upaniṣads are called Daśopaniṣads and they can be regarded as ancient and genuine.

Muktikopaniṣad refers to daśopaniṣadaṃ paṭha^[5] and it says mainly ten Upaniṣads.

īśakenakaṭhapraśnamuṇḍamāṇḍūkyatittiri aitareyaṃ ca chāndegyaṃ bṛhadāraṇyakaṃ tathā || ^[6]

Śrī Śankara, the great exponent of Advaita Vedanta was largely influenced by the spiritual content of the Upaniṣads. In the commentary on the Brahmasūtrā, Śrī Śankara refers to five more, namely, Śvetāśvatarā, Kuasitakī, Jabalā, Mahānārāyaṇa and Paingaḷa. Śrī Śankara’s commentaries on these Upaniṣads, especially on their passages pregnant with philosophical and spiritual import, are masterpieces of philosophical discussion illumined by deep spiritual insights.

Among the Upaniṣadic order, īśāvāsyopaniṣad forms the 40^th adhyāyā (chapter) of the Vājasaneyasaṃhitā and is, therefore, known as the Saṃhitopaniṣad, just as the Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad which belongs to the same Vajasaneyī branch, which is known as the Brāhmaṇopaniṣad. It begins with ‘Īśāvāsyaṃ’ and so it is called Īśopaniṣad. This Upaniṣad embodies in its very opening verse the central theme of all the Upaniṣads, namely, the spiritual unity and solidarity of all existence. It gives a valuable mystical description of the Atman, a description of the ideal sage who stands unruffled in the midst of temptations and sorrows -an adumbration of the doctrine of Karmayoga as formulated later. Finally there is a reconciliation of the claims of knowledge and works. This small Upaniṣads, consisting of only eighteen verses is a compendium of almost all the teachings regarding the Brahmavidya and the way to realize it.

Kenopaniṣad belongs to the Brāhmaṇopaniṣad and it is of the Talavakāra branch of the Sāmaveda. Thalavakāra Upaniṣad is also known as Jaiminīya Upaniṣad Brāhmaṇa. So the Upaniṣad is also named as Thalavakāra Upaniṣad. It consists of four sections, the first two being composed in verse, and the last two in prose. It begins with ‘keneṣitaṃ’ and so it is called Kena. This Upaniṣad illumines the nature of knowledge by pointing out the eternal knower behind all acts of knowing, and purifies man’s concept of Ultimate Reality and of all touch of finitude and relativity by revealing its character as the eternal self of man and the self of the universe. This Upaniṣad then, introduces an allegory to show the extra-ordinary power of Brahman by whose mere wish the Gods obtained a victory in their battle with the demons.

The Kaṭhopaniṣad, the branch of carakakaṭhaśākha of Kṛṣṇayajurveda contains an account of the Brahmavidya as narrated by Yama to Naciketas in poetic style. According to Śrī Śankara it is divided into two chapters and each chapter is again divided into three vallis. This Upaniṣad has a unique characteristic of its own in that it gives a complete outline of the whole of the spiritual life. It holds a special fascination for all students of the Upaniṣad for its happy blend of charming poetry, deep mysticism, and profound philosophy. It contains a unified exposition of Vedanta than any other single Upaniṣad.

The Praśnopaniṣad is coming under in Pippalādaśākha of Atharvaveda, as its name implies, is an Upaniṣad of questions; each of its six chapters is concerned with a question asked by each of a group of six inquiring students on various aspects of Vedanta, and the answers given by their teacher, sage Pippalada. This Brāhmaṇopaniṣad also deals with the distinction between parā and aparā vidyas as also with the cosmological problem regarding the creation of the world and with the conditions of sleep and dream.

The Muṇḍakopaniṣad, is the part of the Saunakīyā branch of the Athaṛvaveda. It contains the instruction on the Brahmavidya and is imparted by Sage Angira and it begins by saying that the Veda consists of two vidyas, para and apara. Each of the three ‘Muṇḍakas’ is again divided into two parts or khānda.

The Māṇḍūkyopaniṣad is also coming under in Atharvaveda, it contains only twelve verses and it is the smallest of all Upaniṣad. This Upaniṣad explains the symbol AUM in three different states and adds a fourth part, corresponding to which there are different states of consciousness. The great originality of the Māṇḍūkya consists in positing the four stages of consciousness, namely, wakefulness, dream, and sleep and a fourth un-namable state of consciousness. Śrī Gaudapāda commenting on the Māṇḍūkyopaniṣad calls it the Māṇḍūkyakārikā; and it is the very foundation and the gist of the Advaita philosophy which is the crest of the whole spiritual experiences. It proclaims in its second verse the infinite dimension of man in a pregnant utterance-one of the four mahāvākyas or ‘great utterance’ of the Upaniṣad: ‘This Atman is Brahman’.^[7]

Taittirīyopaniṣad consists of three prapathakas, the 7^th, 8^th and 9^th of Taittirīya āraṇayaka. There are three parts for it. The first adhyāya, also known as the śikṣadhyāya, is narrated as several upāsanas, and this adhyāya, is divided into twelve anuvākas which tell us how the upāsanas constitute the internal means of attaining Brahmavidya. The second adhyāya, named Brahmāndavalli deals with karma and upāsana. It is useful for realizing Brahman and the source of the universe. The third adhyāya or Bhṛguvalli also pertains to the attainment of Brahmavidya. The peculiar feature of this Upaniṣad is the narration of Pañcakośas.

The Aitareyopaniṣad, properly so-called, is only a part of the larger Aitareya Āraṇyaka beginning with the fourth section of the second chapter of the Āraṇyaka and stretching upto the end of that chapter. It consists of three chapters which are all important. It proclaims another of the four mahāvākyas, ‘Brahman is pure conscousness’.^[8] The first chapter gives us the secret of creation. Everything has been created out of Atman or Brahman. The second chapter lets us know of the three births of a man or Atman. The Creator desires to continue His art of creation. The third chapter deals with the nature of Atman.

The Chāndyogyopaniṣad is the Brāhmaṇopaniṣad of the Chāndogya branch of Sāmaveda. “The word Chāndogya is derived from ‘candhas + ga’ meaning ‘metre singing’, a term used to denote saman chanting”.^[9] It has eight adhyāyās and it aims at describing the highest wish of the human life. The first five chapters of this Upaniṣad dilates on worship and knowledge. Śrī Śankara in his commentary divides worship into three; -the first is connected with sacrifice and sama, the second and the third are connected with Brahman: -Saguṇa (with attributes) and Niṛguṇa (without any attributes). The central idea of Chāndogya-upaniṣad is related to a man who is completely engrossed in doing the actions in order to fulfill his desires to give some time and attention, first to the practice of the upāsanas and energy to the realization of Ātmavidya.

The Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad is known as ‘Bṛhat’ because it is the most voluminous of all. It has been studied in the forest [āraṇyaka] and it is also known as ‘Āraṇya’. It forms the Vājasaneyi brāhmaṇa portion of the kaṇva branch of the Śuklayajurveda. It has the special features of Āranyaka and Upaniṣad. This Upaniṣad contains six chapters. These chapters provide a full analysis of Indian philosophy.

Most of the Upaniṣads majestically expound through fascinating dialogues, conducted by the outstanding personalities, the central theme of all the Upaniṣads, ie; the divinity of man and the spiritual solidarity of the whole universe as Brahman. This is also the central theme of Bṛhadāraṇyaka-upaniṣad It contains one of the four mahavākyas, ‘I am Brahman’.^[10]

Śrī Śankara’s commentaries on these Upaniṣad especially on their passages that are pregnant with philosophical and spiritual import, are masterpieces of philosophical discussion illumined by deep spiritual insights. In his commentary on the Brahmasūtra he refers to more. Among these, Kuaṣitakī Upaniṣad has made important philosophical thoughts. This Upaniṣad is also called Kuaṣitakibrāhmaṇopaniṣad. It belongs to the part of the School of the Kuaṣitakins, or as they are also named, the śānkhāynas, who possess a Brahmanaand an Āraṇyaka joined with it. This Upaniṣad is divided into four chapters and they are the same as the four adhyayas of the Kuaṣitaki Āraṇyaka, identified as the sixth, the seventh, the eight, and the ninth ones. This Upaniṣad is not included in the ten major Upaniṣads; yet it is an important one. It enjoys an antiquity equal to that of the ancient prose Upaniṣad like Bṛ. Up., Ch. Up. and Kau. Up. etc deal with the sole Upaniṣadic problem of the Absolute, transcending of the phenomenal world; it identifies prāṇa with the Highest Truth and extols the knower of the truth. This Upaniṣad discusses spiritual truth with the help of metaphors, namely, devayāna, pitṛ-yāna, prāṇavidhyā and ātmavidhya.

Śvetāśvatara upniṣad is a part of the Taittirīya Branch of the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda. The teacher of this Upaniṣad is Śvetāśvatara. It is divided into six chapters. From the speculative or philosophical point of view, this Upaniṣad is of great importance. Various metaphysical thoughts are discussed in this Upaniṣad. It is stated that the Supreme God is the ultimate cause of the world. The means of realization of this God is by the meditation on AUM.