Part 1 - Veda, the Storehouse of Knowledge

The term veda, derived from root vid, to know with the suffix ghañ, literally means knowledge: vidantyebhiḥ dharmabrahmaṇī kriyājñānamayaṃ brahma vā iti vedaḥ/^[1] The term is derived from root vid, that bears the meaning, vid (jñāne), to know, vid (vicāraṇe), to think about, vid (sattāyām), to exist, vid (lābhe), to obtain, vid to feel, to declare, to dwell.^[2] Ācārya Dayānanda Sarasvatī has opined that the scriptures by which man can attain true knowledge, by the study of which one becomes learned, which helps man in acquiring knowledge or sets man to think about knowledge are the Vedas.^[3]

In the very beginning of his commentary on the Aitareyabrāhmaṇa, Sāyaṇācārya has defined veda as the book which reveals the knowledge of supernatural method for the achievement of the desired objects and avoidance of the undesirable:

iṣṭaprāptyaniṣṭaparihārayoralaukikamupāyaṃ yo grantho vedayati sa vedaḥ/^[4]

The knowledge, which cannot be attained by perception and inference, that knowledge can only be attained by the Vedas.^[5]

The term veda primarily stands for the knowledge and secondarily for the vast body of ancient Indian literature. It is the collective designation of the entire sacred literature of ancient India, or on the other hand, it is the specific name used for the single book belonging to that particular class. Thus, Veda stands for the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā, the Yajurvedasaṃhitā, the Sāmavedasaṃhitā and the Atharvavedasaṃhitā, and all the literary documents, e.g. the Brāhmaṇas, the Āraṇyakas, the Upaniṣads are designated as the Vedas and the vast body of allied literature linked to it, i.e. Vedāṅgas.

Different terms are used for the Vedas on later date. They are called Śruti^[6] as the entire text was composed, remembered and handed down from one generation to the other, by means of oral tradition. They are called Āmnāya^[7] which is derived from root mnā with the prefix ā, meaning to ponder, to meditate upon. Vedas are the works, to be studied or remembered, or to be learnt with deep attention. They are called Trayīvidyā or Trayī.^[8] Vedic Saṃhitās are four in number, but, the mantras thereof, are threefold and therefore the term trayī is commonly used to signify the four Saṃhitās. The Atharvaveda is a late addition to the Vedas. The Vedas are called Chandas, due to their metrical character. Several times in the Aṣṭādhyāyī, Pāṇini has used the term chandas for the Vedas.^[9] The term svādhyāya also stands for the Vedas.^[10] The Vedic texts were regularly studied by the Vedic students and householders during their daily observances of Pañcamahāyajñas, and therefore, they are called Svādhyāya. Besides these, the two terms, viz. Āgama and Nigama are also used for the Vedas while they are used as the sourcebook of all subsequent religious literature.^[11]

As the pertinent source of knowledge and the root of all the branches of science, the Vedas deal with different aspects of ancient India, i.e. socio-cultural, economic, religious, political, geographical, etc. The precious heritage of ancient India is enshrined in the Vedic texts.

The whole Vedic literature is broadly divided into two groups, i.e. the Mantra and the Brāhmaṇa. Āpastamba cites in his Śrautasūtra, mantrabrāhmaṇayorvedanāmadheyam/^[12] Due to their nature of application, mantras come under the class exoteric or karmakāṇḍa, and the philosophical speculations of the Upaniṣads, etc., under the class esoteric or jñānakāṇḍa.^[13]

The Mantras or the metrical portion, also called the Saṃhitās are the collection of hymns, prayers, benedictions, sacrificial formulae, etc. As they are visualized with the inner vision of the Ṛṣis, i.e. the Vedic seers,^[14] they are called mantras.^[15] Due to their divine origin, mantras are called apauruṣeya, i.e. not man-made.^[16]

The Saṃhitās are four in number, viz. the Ṛksaṃhitā, the Yajussaṃhitā, the Sāmasaṃhitā and the Atharvasaṃhitā. The Ṛksaṃhitā is the collection of laudatory verses and these are the means to praise the gods: ṛcyate stūyate anena devaḥ iti ṛgvedaḥ/ The Yajussaṃhitā is the collection of sacrificial formulae, comprising the Taittirīyasaṃhitā or Kṛṣṇayajurveda and the Vājasaneyisaṃhitā or Śuklayajurveda.

The Sāmasaṃhitā is the collection of sacrificial chants. In the Sāmavedabhāṣyabhūmikā, the Ṛkmantras are mentioned as the cause and base of the Sāmans.^[17] The Atharvasaṃhitā bears no direct relation with the sacrifices and they are the collection of magical incantations, i.e. the black and white magic. The Mantras or Saṃhitās form the first stage of development in the field of Vedic literature.

Jaimini has cited the very characteristics of all the three Saṃhitās by saying:

teṣāmṛgyatrārthavaśena pādavyavasthā/ gītiṣu sāmākhyā/ śeṣe yajusśabdaḥ//^[18]

The Ṛkmantras are those composed in metrical forms with a sense, complete in them. The mantras, those are sung, are called Sāman and the rest is called Yajus. The Atharvavedasaṃhitā having many verses from the Ṛgvedasaṃhitā bears the characteristics of that text.

The Brāhmaṇas are the prose texts, dealing with the theological matters, i.e. observations on sacrifice, mystical significance of various sacrificial rites, etc. They are the running commentaries of the sacrifices. The very characteristics of such texts become clear by the observation of Sir M. Monier-Williams. In his dictionary, the Brāhmaṇas are mentioned as the portion of the Veda that is distinct from its Mantra and Upaniṣad portion, containing the rules for the employment of the mantras or hymns at various sacrifices with detailed explanation of their origin and meaning and numerous old legends.^[19] Sāyaṇācārya divides it into two parts—vidhi, i.e. rules and directions for rites, and arthavāda, i.e. explanatory remarks. In his introduction to the Aitareyabrāhmaṇa, Martin Haug differentiates the Mantra and the Brāhmaṇa by saying that mantras are the part containing the sacred prayers, the invocations of the different deities, and the sacred verses for chanting at the sacrifices, the sacrificial formulas, blessings and curses pronounced by the priest, which is the production of thinking. But on the other hand, Brāhmaṇas are that part of the Veda containing speculations on the meaning of the mantras, which give precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with the sacrificial rites and explain the secret meaning of the later.^[20]

The Āraṇyakas and the Upaniṣads also form part of the Brāhmaṇas. The Āraṇyakas are the forest treatises. As they were to be read in the forests, in contradistinction to the regular Brāhmaṇas, that were meant to be read in the settlement, they are called Āraṇyakas. The forest dwellers, who retired from the active family life, for them, these texts were revealed.

These texts were meant to be studied in the forests:

araṇyādhyayanādetadāraṇyakamitīryate/
araṇye tadadhīyītetyevaṃ vākyaṃ pracakṣate//²¹

The Upaniṣads are the concluding part of the Vedic literature and as such they are called the Vedānta. They mainly discuss the sublime nature of Brahman and lead one to the highest and ultimate goal of the Veda, i.e. the doctrine of Self and Supreme Brahman.

Śaṅkarācārya gives the derivation of the term upaniṣad in the introduction to the Kāṭhakopaniṣad thus:

saderdhātorviśaraṇagatyavasādanārthasyopanipūrvasya kvippratyayāntasya rūpamidamupaniṣaditi/²²

With a view to attain the secret doctrine, the group of pupils sat near the teacher in Upaniṣadic era. The Upaniṣad is termed as rahasyam, i.e. secret, by the Indians. Paul Deussen mentions Upaniṣad as secret sign, secret word, secret import, secret formula, secret knowledge, secret meaning and secret instruction.^[21] They convey the messages to loose the bondage of the world and enable the pupil to attain the Self or destroy the ignorance completely who is responsible for the deluding appearance of the infinite Self as the finite embodied creatures.^[22]

Each of the four Vedas has their own Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas and Upaniṣads. The vast Vedic literature comprises all these including a class of auxiliary texts, i.e. the Vedāṅgas. The Vedāṅgas are regarded as the limbs of the Vedapuruṣa. In the Mahābhāṣya, it is cited, brāhmaṇena niṣkāraṇo dharmaḥ ṣaḍaṅgo vedoʹdhyeyo jñeyaśca/^[23]

The Vedāṅgas are six in number, viz.

1. Śikṣā (phonetics),
2. Kalpa (ceremonials),
3. Nirukta (etymology),
4. Vyākaraṇa (grammar),
5. Chandas (metre) and
6. Jyotiṣa (astronomy).

The importance of these treatises is noted in the Pāṇinīyaśikṣā thus:

candaḥ pādau tu vedasya hastau kalpoʹtha paṭhyate/
jyotiṣāmayanaṃ cakṣurniruktaṃ śrotramucyate//
śikṣā ghrāṇaṃ tu vedasya mukhaṃ vyākaraṇaṃ smṛtam/
tasmāt sāṅgamadhītyaitat brahmaloke mahīyate//^[24]

The Vedic texts are the best creation of the Āryan inhabitants of India, which represents the Āryan civilization. The origin of all the sciences, philosophy, religion, culture, etc., is traced back to the Vedic texts and for that, the Vedic age is regarded as the best in the history of India. Among all the Vedas, the Ṛgveda is considered as enormously old by the scholars, as because, they had observed the reflection of the Indo-European mental life in the text, more than the Indian.^[25] In Ṛgvedic period, the Āryan civilization was located in the land of Pañca-janas in the Punjab and expanded towards the east region, that bordered by the rivers Sarasvatī and Dṛṣadvatī. But in the later date, the civilization was shifted from the Indus Valley to the Gangatic Plain,^[26] The references of the eastward movement of the Āryans from the Saptasindhu are well mentioned in the pages of the Veda. The Ṛgvedasaṃhitā narrates the episode of Viśvāmitra, who with a view to performing the Vedic rituals wanted to cross the confluence of Vipāt and Śutudrī, presently called Vipāśā and Śatadru along with his followers.^[27] Again, another reference is found in the Śatapathabrāhmaṇa, that is more concrete than that of the Viśvāmitra-nadī-saṃvāda, where description is found how king Videgha Māthava with the sacrificial fire and his Purohita, Gotama Raghunandana came to the bank of the river Sadānīrā, i.e. Gaṇḍakī and following the direction of the sacrificial fire, crossed the river and placed a new settlement, named as Videha, after the name of the king.^[28]

The socio-religious set up of the Āryan invaders were manifested in the Vedic texts. The people belonging to that particular period, i.e. the Vedic period is known as the Vedic Āryans. Sir M. Monier-Williams holds that, the term ārya means the respectable or honourable or faithful inhabitant of Āryāvarta; one who is faithful to the religion of his country; of the race that immigrated from central Asia into Āryāvarta.^[29]

Sacrifices or ritualistic activities cover a major part of the lives of the Vedic Āryans. The inhabitants of that society were simple enough, who amazed to see the sublime, grand, beautiful and useful aspect of the nature having divine powers. Nature was a never-ending puzzle to them, which possess power and sublimity. They comprehended the true significance of the natural phenomena so intensely and deified them as deities, and started to worship them. The Vedic Āryans worshipped the fire blazing on the hearth or on the altar, the shining Sun, the glowing dawn, etc. They were active and optimistic who prayed their gods for granting long lives, worldly prosperities and brave sons.^[30]

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Sarma, Giridhar & Sarma, Paramesvarananda (ed.), Vaiyākaraṇasiddhāntakaumudī, part III, p.399

[2]:

cf., sattāyāṃ vidyate jñāne vetti vinte vicāraṇe/ vindate vindati prāptau śyanlukśnamśeṣvidaṃ kramāt// Ibid.

[3]:

cf., vidanti, jānanti, vidyante bhavanti, vindati vindate labhante, vindate vicārayanti sarve manuṣyāḥ sarvāḥ satyavidyā yairyeṣu vā tathā vidvāṃsaśca bhavanti te vedāḥ// Saraswati, Sampurnananda (ed.), Ṛgvedādibhāṣyabhūmikā, p.35

[4]:

Aitareyabrāhmaṇabhāṣyabhūmikā, p. 1

[5]:

cf., pratyakṣeṇānumityā vā yastūpāyo na budhyate/ enaṃ vidanti vedena tasmādvedasya vedatā// Taittirīyasaṃhitā,

[6]:

cf., śrutistu vedo vijñeyo…/ Manusmṛti, 2.10

[7]:

Taittirīyasaṃhitā, Bhāṣyakāropodghātaḥ, p.7

[8]:

cf., trayī vai vidyā ṛco yajuṃṣi sāmāni/ Śatapathabrāhmaṇa, 1.1.4.3; 4.6.7.1

[9]:

cf., vibhāṣā chandasi/ Aṣṭā., 1.2.36 chandasi punarvasvorekavacanam/ Ibid., 1.2.61 ṣaṣṭhīyuktaśchandasi vā/ Ibid.,1.4.9

[10]:

cf., yathoktaviṣayādisadbhāvamabhipretya ‘svādhyāyoʹdhyetavyaḥ’ ityadhyayanaṃ vidhīyate/ Taittirīyasaṃhitā,

[11]:

cf., buddhivṛddhikarāṇyāśu dhanyāni ca hitāni ca/ nityaṃ śāstrāṇyavekṣeta nigamāṃścaiva vaidikān//

[12]:

Āś. ŚS., 24.1.31

[13]:

Vide, Sharma, S.N., A History of Vedic Literature, p.3

[14]:

cf., tadyadenāṃstapasyamānān brahmasvayambhvabhyānarṣat ta ṛṣayoʹbhavaṃstadṛṣīṇāmṛṣitvamiti vijñāyate/ Nirukta, 2.11

[15]:

cf., mantrā mananāt/ Ibid.,7.12

[16]:

cf., …tasmāt nāsti vedasya pauruṣeyatvam/ Ṛgvedādibhāṣyabhūmikā

[17]:

cf., gīyamānasya sāmna āśrayabhūtā ṛcaḥ sāmavede samāmnāyante/ Sāmavedabhāṣyabhūmikā

[18]:

Mīmāṃsāsūtra, 2.1.36-37

[19]:

Vide, Monier-Williams, M.(ed.), The Sanskrit English Dictionary, under brāhmaṇa, p.741

[20]:

Vide, Haug, Martin, The Aitareya Brāhmaṇam of the Ṛgveda, Vol. I, Introduction, pp. ix-x²¹ Sāyaṇācārya on Taittirīyāraṇyaka, 1.1.6²² Kathopaniṣad

[21]:

Vide, Deussen, Paul, The Philosophy of the Upanishad, pp.12-13

[22]:

Vide, Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads, Vol. I, p. 11

[23]:

Mahābhāṣya, Paśpasāhnikam, p. 6

[24]:

Pāṇinīyaśikṣā., 41-42

[25]:

Vide, Winternitz, M., A History of Indian Literature, Vol. I, p. 68

[26]:

Basu, Jogiraj, India of the Age of the Brāhmaṇas, pp. 1-2

[27]:

Ṛgvedasaṃhitā, 3.33

[28]:

Śatapathabrāhmaṇa, 1.4.1.10-17

[29]:

Vide, Monier-Williams, M.(ed.)., Op. cit., under ārya, p. 152

[30]:

cf., agninā rayimaśnavatpoṣameva divedive/ yaśasaṃ vīravattamam// Ṛgvedasaṃhitā,1.1.3 sa no vṛṣannamuṃ caruṃ satrādāvannapā vṛdhi/ asmabhyamapratiṣkutaḥ// Ibid., 1.7.6