Part 4 - Kaveri Delta region: Sub Period III: 900-1300 A.D.

[Full title: Kaveri Delta region: Sub Period III: 900-1300 A.D. (The Regional Phase)]

The Balance of Two Powers

In around 850 A.D. the Cholas were re-emerged from obscurity and started capturing strong holds in the Kaveri delta region. The principal feature of the next 300 years was the history of conflict between the imperial Cholas and the Rastrakutas and later their successors, the Eastern Chalukyas. The Rastrakutas and the Eastern Chalukyas of the Deccan and the Cholas of the Deep South confronted heavily in this phase for hegemony over the whole south India. The Cholas were not only established their firm control over the entire Kaveri region and the overall south India, they also managed to capture Ceylon and the whole of Bay of Bengal and some parts of South East Asia. They send expeditions up to the river Ganges in the north and send naval troops to capture Sri-vijaya kingdom in Malay Peninsula, as well as repeated embassies to China.

The emergence of the Cholas occurred when confronting Pallavas and the Pandyas were fighting with each other for supremacy in Kaveri delta. Replacing the Chalukyas of the Tungabhadra valley, the Rastrakutas of the Deccan, was in the fore and involved in this struggle actively. The first known Chola ruler Vijayalaya, who is associated with the foundation of a temple of Goddess Nisumbhasudini (Durga) was perhaps a Pallava subordinate.^[1] He first obtained Tanjore from the hands of the local lineage the Muttarayar. His success annoyed both the Pallavas and Pandyas, but the Pallavas suddenly came under the war of succession between Nrpatunga and Aparajita, after the death of Nandivarman III in 869 A.D. In around 885 A.D. a decisive battle took place in Sripurambiyam near Kumbakonam between two rival groups. By this time the Cholas held a small territory including Tanjore and Uraiur.

The Nrpatunga Pallava and his ally Varaguna Pandya lost in the hands of Aparajita Pallava, Prthvipati I Ganga and Aditya Chola, the son and successor of Vijayalaya.^[2] From this war onwards, both the major power Pallava and the Pandya started disappearing from the political scene. Aparajita Pallava died in his expedition to re-capture Tondaimandalam, puts an end to the Pallava rule. Varaguna Pandya lost his interest in politics and become a saint under Manikavacakar. These events largely opened up the whole territory of the Pallava and Pandyas for Aditya Chola to establish the Chola hegemony. Gangas become his ally and Aditya captured the Kongu territory in the west and established matrimony with the Cheras. He had known to have erected many Siva temples on the banks of Kaveri.^[3]

The annexure of Tondaimandalam brought the Cholas in direct quarrel with the Rastrakutas, at the end of the ninth century A.D., who was matrimonially connected with the Pallavas. They were also akin to occupy the Andhra territory by overthrowing the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Rastrakuta king Krisna III, take several attempts to invade the Cholamandalam, and finally he succeeded to defeat the Cholas in the battle of Tokkolam in 949 A.D. The reigning Chola monarch Parantaka I, who succeeded Aditya I in 907 A.D.^[4] , was from the beginning of his reign, faced the hostility of the Rastrakutas. In Parantaka’s early career he invaded the Pandya country and after capturing it, took the title of Madurai-kondan.^[5] Pandya ruler Maravarman Rajasimha II,^[6] sought the help of Ceylon king Kassapa V, but the joint army was defeated in the battle field of Vellur.^[7] Pandyan king took refuge with the entire kingly diadem^[8] in Ceylon. He took the title of Madurai-Kondan in his forth regnal year.^[9] Chola Parantaka then tried but become unsuccessful to recapture the Pandya insignia by invading Ceylon.^[10] This was the beginning of the Chola-Ceylon conflict, which in later years got maturity in the hands of mighty Rajendra I. Chola control extends up to the Kanyakumari in the south.^[11]

In between this Pandyan conquest, Parantaka was to face the attack of the Rastrakuta king Krisna II, who succeeded the great Amoghavarsa in around 880 A.D. Krisna II was already become triumphant in resisting the northern attack by the Gurjara Pratihara king Bhoja I. Then he made attempt to capture the Vengi Chalukyas till the accession of Chalukya Bhima I. In the battles of Niravadyapura and Peruvanguru, Krisna II lost in the hand of Chalukya Bhima I.^[12]

Rastrakuta king Krisna II’s daughter was married to the Chola Monarch Aditya I, whose son was Kannaradeva. But after Aditya I, Parantaka was made the Chola monarch, this irate Krisna II to invade Chola territory with the help of the Banas and the Vaidumbas. The Banas^[13] and the Vaidumbas^[14] were two contemporary ruling lineages in the tract of Tamilnadu Karnataka border. With the assistance of their old ally, the Ganga king Prithvipati II, Parantaka defeated the combined army of the Rastrakutas-Banas-Vaidumbas, around 916 A.D., in the field of Vallala, modern Tiruvallam in north Arcot district.^[15] Banas and Vaidumbas both lost their territory in the hands of Ganga king Prithvipati II. Kanyakumari inscription of Vira Rajendra asserts that Parantaka earned the title of Vira- Chola by defeating the invincible Krisna-raja.^[16]

From 940 A.D. onwards, Ganga king Prithvipati II died and his son Butuga II, surprisingly become closer to the Rastrakutas and married sister of Krisna III. The Banas and Vaidumbas both regained their power and with the Gangas Butuga II they all took the side of Rastrakuta king Krisna III. By assessing the coming trouble, Parantaka I, stationed his two sons Rajaditya and Arikulakesari, at the north-west frontier with a large army.^[17]

In between these days the Rastrakutas, after Krisna II death in 915 A.D. Indra as the successor, succeeded vigorously in the conflict of north India. They defeated the Paramara ruler Upendra of Malwa, Pratihara ruler Mahipala I of Kanauj and some allied powers like Chandella and Vengi. Krisna III, enthroned in 939 A.D. and soon after his accession with the Ganga king Butuga he obtained the decisive victory in the battle of Tokkolam^[18] , near Arakonam.^[19] Krsna III took the title of Kanciyum-Tanjaiyum-Konda or the conqueror of Kacci (Kanci) and Tanjai (Tanjore)’.^[20] In the Tiruvalangadu plates and larger Leyden grant we find the description of this event.^[21] This eventually ceased the Chola hegemony in its larger northern territory which in turn gave stimuli to their subordinate rulers in the south to act freely. Parantaka I died in around 955 A.D.^[22] A temporary cessation of the Chola existence instilled for some decades. In between these years Taila II of the Chalukyas defeated Rastrakutas in 973 A.D., which gradually create path for the Cholas to regain their powers in succeeding years. Parantaka’s successor king Gandaraditya and his queen Sembiyan-Mahadevi has more close to the religious domain than politics.

The success of the king Taila II in 973 A.D. paved the beginning of the Chalukyan rule centred in Kalyani. From 955 to 985 A.D, the Chola were in complete weakness. The most illuminated period of the Chola starts from the accession of the prince Rajakesari Arumolivarman in 985 A.D.^[23] who eventually is known as Rajaraja Chola. K.A. Nilakantha Sastri called his thirty years of rule as the ‘formative period of Chola imperialism’.^[24] From a small principality to a mighty empire with rich resources, multi-layered administration and standing army and navy, Rajaraja I actually set up the foundation stone of a mighty kingdom in the Deep South.

At the beginning, Rajaraja I faced the enemy confederation of the Pandyas and the Cheras^[25] in addition with the Ceylon army. Tiruvalangadu plates carry a detailed account of Rajaraja’s digvijaya, which he started from the southern direction. In two successive attempts he demolishes the Pandyas and the Cheras. In his third campaign, as depicted in the Tiruvalangadu plates, he sent a naval expedition to capture the northern part of Ceylon or Ilam and forced king Mahinda V to be restricted in the south east of his own island.^[26] Polonnaruva, a new capital was being constructed and the early capital Anuradhapura was looted and destroyed. Rajaraja’s inscriptions were found in Ceylon which records that he erected a Siva temple there.^[27] He also made a grant of several villages in Ceylon for the temple, he erected at Tanjore.^[28] Then he looks forward in the north-western frontier. In a series of assaults he captured Gangapadi, the land of the Gangas, Nolambapadi, and Tadigaipadi (modern Mysore area). His success drifted him into the conflict with the Chalukyas under the leadership of king Taila II. In 992 A.D. he faced a battle with Taila II’s son Satyasraya^[29] .

The upcoming Chalukyas of Kalyani, who uprooted the Rastrakutas of Manyakheta was consolidated their control in western Deccan in between Narmada and Tungavadra River under the rule of Taila II. He also restricted invasion of Paramara ruler Munja of Malwa. Satyasraya become king in 997 A.D. after the death of his father Taila II, continued as aggressive as his father and now towards the Cholas. The eastern Deccan, now under the control of the Cholas, Jata-Choda-Bhima, a Telegu-Choda ruler came to the fore and established his power over the Eastern-Gangas of Kalinga and the Vaidumbas. Jata-Choda-Bhima further taken control of Vengi from Eastern Chalukya king Danarnava and ruled Vengi for twenty seven years. Danarnava’s sons got refuge from the Cholas and Rajaraja’s daughter Kundavai married the younger son, who stand against Cholas of Tondaimandalam. Ultimately Jata-Choda-Bhima defeated by the rising Chola power and the elder son of Danarnava, Saktivarman I, restored in Vengi. In response of Satyasraya’s attack of Vengi, Rajaraja I sent his son Rajendra to plunder the entire Western Chalukya country. In 1007 A.D. Rajendra I managed to capture Manyakheta along with Banvasi and parts of Raichur Doab region. Karandai (Tanjore) plates (v.30), speaks of a king called Banaraja, who faced defeat in the hands of Rajaraja himself.

At around the close of his reign, Rajaraja I captured Maldives and made his son Rajendra I as crown prince in 1012 A.D. The grand architectural monument Rajaraja constructed is the Siva Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjore. The inscriptions inscribed in this temple records that a large number of villages has been granted to this temple to meet the expenses of this temple. Rajaraja I took various titles, like Jayangonda, Cholendrasimha, Sivapadasekhara, Ksatriyasikhamani, Cholamartanda, Nityavinoda, Pandya-kula-sani, Keralantaka, Singhalantaka, Ravikulamanikya and so on.^[30] He died in around 1014 A.D. By his benevolence the Sailendra ruler of Sri-Vijaya (Palembang and Kataha or Kedah) built a Buddhist Vihara at Nagapattinam, known as Cudamani Vihara.

Parakesarivarman-Rajendra-Choladeva I, the most successful ruler of the Imperial Chola line, made his son Rajadhiraja I as the crown prince in 1018 A.D. According to Karandai plates, at first he subjugated the whole of Ceylon and made this region as the ninth province of his empire (Ila-mandalam). Then he annexed the entire Chera and Pandya country and ambitiously made his son as the subordinate ruler by conferring the title Chera-Pandya. By this time Western Chalukyas were came under two sided threat, from north the Paramaras of Malwa and from the south Rajendra Chola the great. In Vengi, after a war of succession, the son of Kundavai, Rajaraja, was being deprived by another aspirant Vijayaditya with the help of Western Chalukya king Jayasimha II. Rajendra rushed his force towards Vengi and Manyakheta simultaneously. The Western Chalukya power defeated in the war of Maski^[31] and Tungabhadra become the boundary in between them. Another flank of army not only captured Vengi but to march farther into Kalinga. Eastern Ganga ruler Madhukamarnava defeated due to his said association with the Western Chalukyas. According to the Tiruvalangadu plates and Karandai plates,^[32] the Chola army under some dandanatha or commanders went still farther up to the valley of Ganges. In his return route Rajendra I made Kundavai’s son Rajaraja, the ruler of Vengi in 1022 A.D. To commemorate his victory of the valley of Ganges, he set up his new capital Gangoikondacholapuram in Tiruchirapalli district.

He then made triumphant naval expedition against the Sailendra rulers of Sri-Vijaya kingdom. By this venture Chola not only established control over the Malaya peninsula, but also the neighbouring maritime states.^[33] It additionally gave them the control over the entire sea route from India to China. The ruler of Cambodia sought friendship relation with Rajendra Chola I. He sent diplomatic ambassador to China for establishing trade relations in 1016 and 1033 A.D. The entire expedition was a grand success on the part of a regional Indian navy. King Sangrama Vijayottungavarman was taken captive. Ultimately they had to acknowledge the Chola suzerainty. A Tamil inscription found in Sumatra, bearing the date of 1088 A.D. proves the active relations between these bilateral countries were maintained for several decades.

Rajendra’s attack to Sri-Vijaya and his north Indian expedition shows that the Chola state achieved its greatest territorial extent of control. But in little later days Chola-Chalukya conflict blaze up again when Somesvara I ascended the throne on 1042 A.D. and shifted his capital from Manyakheta to Kalyani. Without any decisive victory this conflict continues between the Chola and the Chalukyas for the control of Vengi. After 1068 A.D. Somesvara II succeeded Somesvara I, but his another brother Vikramaditya IV sub-divided the Western Chalukya kingdom in to two halves. In 1070 A.D., a dramatic turn occurred in the politics of the southern India. The Eastern Chalukya prince of Vengi ascended the throne of both Vengi and Chola as Kulottunga I.

1070 A.D. onwards

In around 1067 A.D. Virarajendra made one naval expedition to Ceylon to restrict king Vijayabahu I for his efforts to re-establish himself. Vijayabahu defeated for the time being but within a year or two he come out with more strength. Cholas under Virarajendra, in 1068 A.D. had sent another voyage of arsenal to the Malay Peninsula^[34] to aid an aspirant Kadaram prince to reinstate in power. After the death of Virarajendra, Vikramaditya IV, the western Chalukyan ally of the Chola, found difficult to protect the Chola line itself.

Eastern Chalukya prince Rajendra II, whom Virarajendra kept out of the Vengi throne, now took full advantage of his death. Unexpected death of Chola monarch Adhirajendra, Rajendra II or Kulottunga I, captured the unoccupied Chola throne. He also made possible of the ouster of Vijayaditya VII, from Vengi and get hold of two power centre simultaneously. Again Vikramaditya IV, the western Chalukyan ally of the deceased Chola Virarajendra, came under threat of both Kulottunga I and his own brother Somesvara. He was in search of new friends like Kadambas of Konkan, Vinayaditya and his son Ereyanga of the rising Hoyasala family, the Pandyas, and the Yadavas of Devgiri. The both alliances become prepared to final faceoff. In 1075 A.D. the army of Kulottunga defeated Vikramaditya, but soon Vikramaditya recaptured his own territory by defeating his brother Somesvara and ascended the throne. Who is eulogised in Vikramankadevacarita by Bilhan. In the mean time Vengi was attacked by the Haihaya ruler of Tripuri, Yasahkarnadeva, in 1073 A.D.

Immediate after the accession of Kulottunga I in 1070 A.D., the Chola Maritime polity changed significantly. Vijayabahu of Ceylon succeeded to overthrown the Chola power permanently from the land of Ceylon and got Vikramaditya his natural ally against the Cholas. The Pandyas and other Kerala princes were become rebellious against the Chola rule. Kulottunga able to recapture his lost territories in the Deep South but decided to made peace with Ceylon rulers. His daughter got married with Vijayabahu’s son. He sent an embassy to China in A.D. 1077 more to establish the commercial interest. He was also in the favour of only commercial attachments with the Malaya peninsula. In 1090 A.D. Malaya embassy sent to Nagapattinam for the maintenance of the Viharas.

From after 1076 A.D. the politics of Vengi become more dramatic. Death of Vijayaditya VII compelled Kulottunga to engage his sons as viceroys of Vengi. But after 1097 A.D. a local chieftain Kolanu, empowered with a league of help from Anantavarman Choda-Ganga of Kalinga. Vikrama-Chola, the viceroy of Vengi (1092-1118 A.D.) got help from Parakrama Pandya from Deep South. Chola army forced to them to submit for the time being. But in around 1110 A.D. Anantavarman Codaganga again become rebellious and did not ready to submit under the Chola Sovereignty. For the second time Chola army marched towards the north. The Chola general Karunakara Tondaiman, not only defeated Anantavarman Codaganga, but also plundered the whole of Kalinga. Poet Jayankondar has engraved this vigorous episode in poem named Kalingattupparani. In 1118 A.D. when Vikrama-Chola left Vengi, Vikramaditya installed his general Anantapala, as ruler of Vengi. Slowly Chalukyan commanders started taking control of other Telegu region.^[35]

The time of Kulottunga I, in the fate of Chola rule, starts the curve diminishing in direction. Ceylon was out of their control and Vikramaditya of the Western Chalukyas marched up to Godavari River. Mere diplomatic relations was maintained with the distant kingdoms, like Cambodia, Indo-China, and with rulers of Pagan. Vikrama Chola, who finally succeeded Kulottunga I, in 1118 A.D., to the end of Kulottunga III’s reign in 1216 A.D., the Chola power ‘practically started disappearing from the political scene.’^[36] At the time of Vikrama Chola, the temple of Chidambaram made extensive donations due to their royal family associations’ right from the time of Parantaka I. Vengi was lost again in the hands of Western Chalukyas and their ally Eastern Ganga king Anantavarman Choda-Ganga.

The inscriptions of this period, from the beginning of the twelfth century A.D., records financial stress and increasing amount of pending of tax, heavily weaken the Chola administration.^[37] Local chiefs started becoming more powerful, that finally lessen the strength of the Chola army. In the second half of the twelfth century A.D., Cholas become involved in the war of succession in the Pandya country along with the Cheras, and Ceylon rulers, continued farther. Kulottunga III, who ruled in between 1178-1218 A.D. made a magnificent Siva temple Tribhuvanam in the centre of the Chola country.

In Deccan, new ruling lineages started rising in twelfth century A.D. The Yadavas in the north, the Kakatiyas in the east, The Kalachuris and the Hoyasalas in the south, create pressure on the reigning Chalukyan power which ultimately came to an end in 1190 A.D.

Nature of Kingship and Polity

The form of the government as was in early two phases were centrally monarchical. But now the established hereditary kingship is coming out with majestic display of various features, as genealogies and successors, with its several palaces, royal court with court poetry, massive royal temples, stateofficials, ceremonies, on the basis of its concentrated recourses, and vastness of its territory. The coronations of a king become a important and impressive ceremony in this phase. The Chalukyas usually had done this ceremony at Pattadakal, the coronation stone. The Cholas have stage wise changes this ceremony from time to time. These places were Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram, Chidambaram and sometimes Kancipuram.

Throughout the phase the Cholas maintained their political hold over the entire Deep South along with their homeland the Kaveri river delta. They actually embraced the whole southern India, extended east to west from sea to sea. Vengi was closely connected with the Chola polity without some interregnum. Spread of the Chola control twice in the north and firm hold on the Pandyamandalam land inspired them to march farther south and capture Ceylon. In the eastward, they restored control over the whole of Bay of Bengal.

In case of the royal sacrifices the Asvamedha sacrifice occurs only once in the inscription of Rajadhiraja.^[38] In the poems of Sangam age Vedic rituals were common but this imperial line in the third phase shown more keenness with the policy of Dana or gifts in preference to sacrifice. To attain religious merit, offerings in terms of gift of land and resources, numerously donated to the temples and various religious establishments. The temples, the brahmadeya villages, the Jain Pallis and Buddhist Viharas, all received donations from the king and royal officials and rich.

In regard to the structure of the Chola state, Nilakantha Sastri categorically exemplifies the Chola state as ‘the almost Byzantine royalty of Rajaraja and his successor’,^[39] differentiated from ‘the simple, personal rule of the earlier time’.^[40] Anthropologist Burton Stein epitomized the Chola state as ‘Segmentary’,^[41] composed of many similar segments surround the core area and king has control only of that core area. For the other segment, the King only enjoyed ritual sovereignty. He argues that the king had no political authority over the other segment. This model he envisaged was applied from Pallava to the Vijayanagara state. The most controversial theorisation of B. Stein, which he drew from A. Southall’s model studied on Alur society of Africa, got some important criticism also. His denial of king’s political authority (what he changed in his later days in 1996), seriously challenged by the scholars like M.G.S. Narayanan, R. Champahalakshmi, N. Karashima, Y. Subbarayalu and Brajadulal Chottopadhyaya.

The most important effort kingship made in this phase discussed above, was the policy of temple construction. In the early Chola period, before Rajaraja I, we find mainly two types of temples were being constructed. In one type, the sepulchral monuments, generally temples were built on the places where their king died in war, the Pallipadai.^[42] In another type, fresh monuments were constructed on local sacred places or old structures were refurbished. Parantaka I made such Pallipadai, on commemoration of his father Aditya’s death, the Kodandaramesvaram temple.

From the time of Rajaraja I, kings started constructing temples of Siva, but with a new dimension added with it. In Rajarajesvaram temple at Thanjavur, the enshrined Linga is being named as Rajarajesvara, the same name of the reining Chola monarch. It was built when king Rajaraja was still a living ruler. By doing this, the reigning king Rajaraja made a dramatic shift in his royal temple construction policy from their earlier Pallipadai or sepulchral model. Likewise Rajendra I also erected such temple at Gangoikondacholapuram named after him as Rajendresvram temple. To establish the unparallel prestige of the Chola rule, to project his own greatness and generosity, he might have taken this path breaking building policy. The practice of worship of idols called sometimes after the living ruler, which Nilakantha Sastri connected with the apotheosis of Royal personages and further with the cult of Devaraja or God-king.^[43] Sometimes we find the images of the Queens and daughter of the Royal family were restored in the temples and worshipped. Images of Kundavai, Rajaraja and his queen Lokamahadevi, queen of Gandaraditya, Rajendra and Chola-Mahadevi are some examples in this regard.

This display of sovereign political ritual which encompasses the sacerdotal arena, identified as ritual sovereignty by Burton Stein. Not only the construction in state expense, a large amount of gifts to the deity by the royal household and revenue of forty villages in Cholamandalam and sixteen villages in Karnataka and Ceylon for the daily expense of the temple were recorded in several temple inscriptions.^[44] Detailed information of each villages found in Chola inscription. Like the land measures, grain amount or wealth to donate for the temple which actually establish the sovereign political control of the state or king over his land and resources, in or out of his core area. It also shows the system of administration of proliferated bureaucracy and its degree of efficiency. This was certainly a structural change in the system of state administration from the earlier phase of sub-regional state. The well organised state revenue department called Puravuvari, now sub divided into many offices with complex land and tax related affairs like Puravuvari-Tinaikkala-Kankani or Puravuvari-Tinaikkala-Nayagam, the accountant supervisor of revenue department; Varippottagam, the tax register; Mugavetti, the royal seal; Varipottaga-Kanakku, the accountant of the tax register; Variyilidu, entry in the tax register; and Pattolai, the palm-leaf record writer.^[45]

In karandai copper plate inscription of Rajendra I, we find records of more than fifty villages have been donated to nearly 1080 Brahmanas. Names of various level officers assigned with theses donations are also being recorded. All these information establishing the existence of a well developed administration and revenue system in the Chola state. N. Karashima opines that most this elaborate administration has been the creation of the Parantaka I.^[46] which continues till the end.

About the nature of the state, Burton Stein’s theory of Segmentary state in 1980 actually initiated a high sound debate related to early and early medieval India. Different scheme of models come out with accepting or denying Stein’s theory.^[47] In opposition of Nilakantha Sastri’s Centralised administration the model of feudal state has been put forward by D.N.Jha, B.N.S.Jadav, R.N.Nandi, et al. Kulke wanted to put more importance to three stage process of state formation and Brajadula Chottopadhyaya argues for the horizontal integration of samantas and the existence of autonomous spaces in the state. Farther B.P. Sahu try to attract our attention towards regional and diachronic differences found in the relation of centre and peripheries.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Colas. p.86

[2]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Pandyan Kingdom, p.78

[3]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.89

[4]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy. II, 11; & Epigraphica Indica, XXV, p.38, for Parantaka’s rule of 48 years.

[5]:

Description of the war found in Udayendiram plates of Prithvipati in A.D. 921-22; SII, II, no. 76, VV. p.9-11

[6]:

Mahavamsa in Culavamsa, (ed.) & translated by Geiger, Pali Text Society, Ch. 52, vv. 70 ff.

[7]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1926, II, P. 16. & SII, III, No. 99

[8]:

Tiruvalangadu Plates; verse no. 51,

[9]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Cholas, p.121

[10]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.89

[11]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Cholas, p.121.

[12]:

Ibid. p.149

[13]:

For the Banas;Epigraphica Indica, XI, p.229-40 XVII, p.1-7

[14]:

Vaidumbas in Krisna III’s records, Epigraphica Indica. VII, 1905, p.142, 16, 743.; Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy. 1905, II, p. 28

[15]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.90

[16]:

Ajitam-Naradhipatih, V. 58, Epigraphica Indica. XXVI, p. 212-14.

[17]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.90

[18]:

K.V.S. Aiyar, Epigraphica Indica. XII, p.123, XIX, p. 82; Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy. 1926, II, 12

[19]:

Epigraphica Indica. IV, p.331, n. 3

[20]:

Epigraphica Indica. XXVI, p.232, Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy. 1939-40, II, 23

[21]:

Archaeological Survey of South India. IV, pp.206-7, II, 42-45; Epigraphica Indica. XXII

[22]:

Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy. 1931-2, II, 11, & Epigraphica Indica. XXV, p. 35

[23]:

Epigraphica Indica. IX, p. 217.

[24]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.92

[25]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Colas, p.169

[26]:

SII. III, 4, 15

[27]:

ASC, 1891, p.12, No.78-80

[28]:

SII. II 92, para 12-15

[29]:

SII. II 1, para 92

[30]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Colas, p.186

[31]:

SII. II, p. 94-5

[32]:

SII. III. P. 339, v. 100

[33]:

SII. II, p.109

[34]:

N. Karashima, 'South Indian Merchant Guilds in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia', in H. Kulke et al. (eds), Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa, pp.135-157

[35]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Illustrated History of South India, p.105

[36]:

Ibid; p.105

[37]:

N. Karashima, op.cit. p.127

[38]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Colas, p.451

[39]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Colas, 1955, p. 447

[40]:

Ibid, p.200

[41]:

Burton Stein, Peasant state and society in medieval South India, Oxford University Press, 1980, p.256-57

[42]:

Y. Ogura, ‘The Changing Concept of Kingship in the Chola Period: Royal Temple Construction’, in N. Karashima (ed.) Kingship in Indian History, Delhi, Monohar, 1999.

[43]:

K.A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Colas p. 452

[44]:

SII, II, 4, 5, & 92

[45]:

P. Shanmugam, The Revenue System of the Cholas, New Era Pub, Madras, 1997; Y. Subbarayalu, South India Under the Cholas, OUP, 2012, p. 226, 234.

[46]:

N. Karashima, op.cit, pp.91-96.

[47]:

Detailed information about these models found in Hermann Kulke; State in India, OUP, Delhi, 1995, Upinder Singh, Rethinking Early Medieval India: A Reader, OUP, 2011, the integrative model of state formation in early medieval India found in Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya, The Making of Early Medieval India, OUP, 1994, 2012, and B.P. Sahu, The Changing Gaze: Regions and the Constructions of Early India, OUP, New Delhi, 2013.