Chapter 7 - Major Findings and Concluding Observations

In pursuance of this research work to study and analyze the dichotomic interpretation of the major and minor sacrifices of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, this chapter records the major findings and concluding observations. This research work mainly focuses on the sacrifices of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, and an attempt has been made to highlight the dichotomic interpretation of the major and minor sacrifices of the same.

The Vedic literature is a vast and deep ocean of knowledge with multi dimensional disciplines. In the course of our research period we have found that the sage Bharadvāja spent his whole life in the study of Vedic literature, but he was not able to complete it. This gives us idea about the immensity of the Vedic literature.

Next to the Saṃhitās, the Brāhmaṇa literature is of great significance. There are several Brāhmaṇas of the four Veda. Now-a-days all the Brāhmaṇas are not available. All the matters relating to the sacrificial performances are discussed in the Brāhmaṇa literature. Besides sacrificial details, from the Brāhmaṇa literature we also get information about the ancient Indian culture and civilization, social and economic condition of the people, system of education and the profession of the people, status of women in the society, system of marriage, geographical and agricultural background of people, major entertainment of the people of that time like dice play, chariot race, music, dance and so on. The Brāhmaṇa literature also provides us idea about the political implications of various sacrifices, knowledge of medicine and disease, flora, fauna and so on. Moreover, the philosophical ideas are also found in some places of the Brāhmaṇa literature. Thus, along with sacrificial details, the Brāhmaṇa literature also provides us a wide variety of subjects of ancient time.

In the course of our study period we have observed that the ‘Yajña’ or sacrifice is regarded as the best task or sreṣṭhatamaṃ karma. As by performing sacrifice one can redeem his sin and became holy and blessed. We know that by birth human beings are indebted with five kinds of debts known as-Bhutaṛna, Manuṣya-ṛna, Pitṛ-ṛna, Deva-ṛna and Ṛṣi-ṛna. One can redeem himself from such kind of debt by performing Bhūta-yajña, Manuṣya-yajña, Pitṛ-yajña, Deva-yajña and Brahma-yajña respectively. Sacrifice also insures the operation of all powers for good. The sacrifice is generally characterized as ‘Sri’-Prosperity, abundance and wellbeing. The sacrifice is also identified with various gods like Indra, Agni, Viṣṇu, Prajāpati and others. If the sacrificial tasks are performed in an exact way, the sacrificer may attain his desired will, but if there is any mistake happened in the sacrificial performance, the sacrificer may occur sin. Thus the performance of sacrifice is identified with the journey of boats. Because, when the sailor voyage the boat in a proper way, one may reach to his destination, but any mistake submerged the boat in the mid way.

In the ancient Vedic society the rituals are regarded as the major social ceremonies. Most of the people of that time performed sacrifice as a daily act of their life. Now-a-days also the sacrificial ceremonies are performed, but these sacrificial ceremonies are not alike that of the sacrifice which were executed in the Vedic age. As a matter of fact, from the Vedic period there are changes in the performance of sacrifice (both ritualistic and idealistic), and with this changes sacrifices are performed in the present days also.

Sacrifices are generally performed for the attainment or fulfilment of various desirous or wish. By performing sacrifice the sacrificer wants to obtain generally the blessings of the God. Apart from the general sacrifices, there are others which were performed for fulfilment of many wishes veiled under religious traits. In the second category there are a number of sacrifices which are directly connected with kingship or royal upliftment. They are Rājasūya, Vājapeya and Aśvamedha. By performing those sacrifices the sacrificer connects himself with kingship and paramount sovereignty. The great king Pṛthu was installed to his kingdom by the performance of Rājasūya Yajña. The attainment of various royal powers lays on the performance of sacrifice. We have found that the Gods installed Indra to kingship by the great consecration or Mahābhiṣeka ceremony.

This consecration ceremony of Indra has great value. As this consecration ceremony is used as model in the anointing ceremony of Kṣatriya Yajamāna. By this anointing ceremony one becomes dauntless like Indra. A Kṣatriya Yajamāna may win his all enemies, conquers the world, gains fame and reputation if he is consecrated with Aindra Mahābhiṣeka. Thus here we got an idea that the achievement of royal power lies in the consecration ceremony.

It is observed that in the Rājasūya ceremony offerings are made by the consecrated king at the houses of the ‘Ratnins’. The Ratnins or the king makers actually consisted of different classes of people in the society. The consecrated king makes offerings to each of the Ratnin’s house with the intention to seek their support. This bears some political significance. This approach and appeal serves dual purpose-contact with all stratas of society is made and the religious goal is also achieved. In the list of the Ratnins, we find four social classes of people. Instead of Brāhmaṇa (the Purahita) or the Kṣatriya (the King himself), we find the names of Vaiśyas i.e. Grāmanī and the Śudras (the Akṣāvāpa and the Govikartana). The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa gives a record of the participation of the Śudras in a purificatory rite named as ‘Soma-Rudra’ iṣṭi. So, it can be said that the offering made by the consecrated king to the house of the Ratnins (i.e. to the various social castes) highlights the social condition of the people in that time. As a matter of fact, the offerings made by the king to the various social classes of people signify that the king’s duty to his subjects was equal and there was no social discrimination among them during those days. Therefore this ‘Ratnināṃ-haviṃsi’ offering is politically very significant.

In the Rājasūya sacrifice, the Adhvaryu priests sprinkled the king with 17 holy waters collected from various sources. By this sprinkling ceremony the king become sanctified. On the first day of the consecration ceremony offering are also made to the eight Gods (along with their epithets) with the intension to achieve their blessings. As a matter of fact, the use of epithets or sprinkling the king with various holy waters represents the various quality or character of the king.

As a popular festival, the cow raid or the chariot race was performed in the Rājasūya or in the Vājapeya sacrifice. The special feature of this rite is that by this rite the sacrificer becomes victorious and secures power. As this rite is used to test the physical fitness of the ruler and enable him the fittest man for kingship.

In the Rājasūya sacrifice, Tiger’s skin is used in numerous rituals. After the oath taking ceremony the king steps upon the tiger skin. It is also observed that in the Rājasūya sacrifice the throne (which is made of khādirā wood) is installed on the Tiger’s skin for the king. Among all the beasts the Tiger is regarded as the supreme animal or the king. Hence, the use of Tiger’s skin in the Rājasūya ceremony is an indication of the fact that by using the Tiger’s skin the Adhvaryu wants to make the king supreme or highest among all human beings like that of the Tiger.

Moreover, it has been noticed that Gold is repeatedly used both in the Rājasūya and in the Vājapeya sacrifice. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa we have found that the ‘Gold’ is used as the symbol of immortal life. Hence, by using the Gold in both the ceremonies the Adhvaryu expected an immortal life for the sacrificer.

It is found that the number seventeen is used again and again in various rituals. This number is considered as a very holy number. The Śatapatha have connected the number seventeen with Prajāpati, the lord of creation. Thus, the number seventeen is used in various rituals of the Vājapeya sacrifice with the intension that the king or the sacrificer attains such excellence like that of Prajāpati.

In the Aśvamedha sacrifice, before starting of the actual performance, the king or the sacrificer has to let loose a sacrificial horse for one year for roaming. This horse is protected by various royal attendants or soldiers. These royal attendants are nothing but the different classes of fighter. From these royal guards we get the description of various kinds of weapons like missiles, armours and so on. As a matter of fact, these royal guards of the sacrificial horse highlight the military strength and power of the king.

Besides this, in the Aśvamedha sacrifice the four queens the king takes active part in the sacrifice with hundred female attendants each. The participation of the queens in the sacrifice with their female attendants shows the constitutional status and dignity of the four queens.

As a minor sacrifice the Puruṣamedha, the Sarvamedha, the Agnicayana, the Cāturmāsya and the Sautrāmaṇī ceremony are also possess some significant character in it. It is found that the executor of the Puruṣamedha sacrifice attains and secures everything. This sacrifice is also performed for the attainment of overpowering strength. A Kṣatriya Yajamāna by performing this sacrifice surpasses all being and attains everything. Moreover, by performing the Puruṣamedha sacrifice a general welfare is wished by the Kṣatriya Yajamāna for his people as he gives up his all property as dakṣinā to the priests and retires to the forest. This provides us idea about the royal character of the Puruṣamedha sacrifice.

Besides this, the Puruṣamedha sacrifice also provides some philosophical idea. In the Puruṣamedha sacrifice human slaughtering was avoided, after the Paryagnikaraṇa performance human victims are set free and offerings are made in symbolical way. The idea of self renunciation in man, avoiding human slaughtering or entering in the life of mendicant is the indicator of the philosophical thinking of the Puruṣamedha sacrifice.

In the course of our study period we have observed that the Sarvamedha sacrifice is that sacrifice which is performed both for the attainment of ‘every kind of food’ and for ‘universal sovereignty’. As in the Sarvamedha sacrifice the sacrificer offers all the sacrificial essences in the fire (like every kind of food both the dry and the fresh), and attains every kind of food and Supremacy too. In Ancient times numerous king performed this sacrifice and secures lordship, sovereignty and every kind of food. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa we have found that the king Viśvakarman Bhauvana performed this sacrifice and attains everything and becomes everything. Hence the above discussion gives us idea that the Sarvamedha sacrifice has some dichotomic character in it.

The Agnicayana or the fire building ceremony generally comes under the Soma sacrifice. The long ritual procedure of the Agnicayana ceremony is described in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa from kāṇḍa VI-X. In the ritual procedure of the Agnicayana ceremony, some philosophical or cosmological thinking are corroborated in it. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa has identified the fire altar of the Agnicayana ceremony with the Prajāpati, the lord of creation. Moreover, the construction of the bricks and the process of pilling them up are also equalized with Prajāpati’s cosmic creation. Thus the Agnicayana ceremony provides us the cosmological or philosophical idea of life. Besides this, the Agnicayana ceremony have some oblations conveying royal character. The Pārtha oblations of the Rājasūya, the Vājaprasavīya oblations, Rāṣṭrabhṛt (realmsustaining) oblations and the sacred bath or Abhiṣeka in the Agnicayana ceremony possessing some monarchial or dichotomic features of the Agnicayana sacrifice.

The Cāturmāsyas are seasonal sacrifice and generally considered as fertility rite. The Cāturmāsyas also have some royal character in it. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa it is mentioned that the sacrificer of the Rājasūya offers Vaiśvadeva, Varuṇapraghāsa and Sākamedha offering and wins the abundance of food, makes the creatures free from Varuṇa’s noose and killed his hateful enemy like the Gods. Hence, the insertion of the Cāturmāsya in the Rājasūya shows the royal or political importance of the Cāturmāsya sacrifice.

The Sautrāmaṇī is an expiatory rite performed by one who is excessively purged by the drinking of Soma. We have found that the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice formed a prominent role in the Rājasūya sacrifice. By performing the Rājasūya sacrifice the sacrificer becomes deprived from certain sensual powers like vitality, speech and so on. In order to regain such power, the sacrificer of the Rājasūya perform the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice and gets backs his lost power. Moreover, a king (who is deprived of his kingdom) can also get back his kingdom by performing the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice. As in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa it is stated that the sage Cākra Sthāpati executed the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice for the king Duṣṭaṛtu Pauṃsāyana and returned back his lost dominion to him which was captured by the Sriñjayas. Hence, being a most significant part of the Rājasūya sacrifice, the Sautrāmaṇī sacrifice also possessing monarchial attachment in it.

It will be pertinent to mention here that the Brāhmaṇa literature mainly deals with various ritualistic performances. One of the major traits of the Brāhmaṇa literature is to discuss even all the petty matters of the sacrificial performances. Sacrifice was a well installed practice at the time of the Brāhmaṇas. Most of the people of that time accepted sacrifice as a part of their everyday life. It was not only a religious practice, but the sacrifice was performed at that time by the people with various motives. Yajña or sacrifice has the proven ability to rejuvenate the environment. When the sacrifice is performed numerous mantras are recited and various āhutidravyas are offered in the fire, which creates positive effects in the mind of the people and in the atmosphere. The sacrifices which have been discussed in this dissertation also equip the general effects of the other sacrifices. It removes all the negative effects of pollution of the environment besides their added implications. Furthermore, by performing sacrifices one can obtain his desired object and dignified status.

The thesis entitled ‘A Dichotomic interpretation of the sacrifices of Rājasūya, Vājapeya and Aśvamedha: Their Ritualistic and Monarchial Strata with reference to the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa’ resumes to its concluding observation that the political genesis of ancient India was impregnated in these sacrifices. A derivative interpretation of the details of the rituals of these sacrifices had a dichotomic approach which contributed a lot in bringing up in to shape or come in to existence of monarchy in ancient India.