Bhavartha Dipika (sociological background)

[Prof. N.K. Bhagwat, m.a.]

The publishers of the English Rendering of the Jnaneshwari have, with the publication of the Vol. II, completed their work and have had the satisfaction of carrying to fulfilment the cherished and somewhat ambitious plan of presenting the reading-public with a literal and readable rendering into English of the Marathi Bhavartha Dipika. (the magnum opus) compiled by the celebrated Saint Jnaneshwar of Alandi (Poona District). Other relevant matters, like a short lifesketch of the Poet-philosopher, have also been given with these two volumes. It was, however, thought necessary to add a small note on the conditions, prevailing in the days of Jnaneshwar and thereabout, and which are directly or indirectly referred to by the Poet-philosopher in the course of his composition. In fact, it is in conformity with the modern conception of scholarship that such an attempt, however humble and perfunctory it may be, should be made to complete the work and offer food for thought to the modern scholars of history and sociology. The science of sociology has been recognised as a patent means of understanding the political, economical, social, moral, intellectual and in fact every other aspect of the life and conditions of a people of a particular locality, place or country. When a writer of outstanding merit and flashing genius of the type of Jnaneshwar composes a literary work of art, he is not satisfied by merely playing the role of a commentator or a pundit, but consciously or unconsciously reflects the life of the people among whom he resides and hence the appreciation of work like the Jnaneshwari will be incomplete and unscientific unless and until this is brought prominently to the notice of the enlightened readers of the Bhavartha Dipika. This effort is by no means comprehensive or complete, but is intended to excite and encourage the reader to pursue this subject further, according to his capacity, intelligence and level of understanding.

Political conditions:

During the twelfth century, in so far as the Maharashtra is concerned, there is not the shadow of doubt that there was perfect independence and no foreign power or element was dominating this part of Bharat. Maharashtra was by this time ruled over by the Yadavas, who had originally held sway over the portions, constituting the modern Nasik and Khandesh Districts. That portion was known as the Seunadesha (seūna-deśa). Bhillam Yadava, one of the most brave and powerful descendants of the family attacked Someshwar, the Chalukya king and extended his sphere of supremacy over the whole of Maharashtra, to the north of the Krishna River and transferred his capital from Sinnar to Deogiri. Then followed a series of brilliant rulers in that illustrious family and by the time Jnaneshwar existed Ramadevaraya became the ruler of the glorious kingdom of Maharashtra. It was many years after Jnaneshwar that one of the commanders of Allauddin Khilji, Sardar Malik Kafoor, entered the Deccan. So, according to the political ideas, found in the literature of polity (Arthashastra), the king was regarded as part of the Divinity, who ruled over his subjects righteously and agreeably to the duties and responsibilities entailed upon him as the governor of men. Under him the society was organised in the four-fold caste system and everybody was expected to behave in conformity with the duties of the caste, in which he was born. We may, therefore, remark that in those days, the ideas of democracy and representative institutions were conspicuous by their absence. In fact, it was a kind of benevolent absolute monarchy. The king was generally a benevolent ruler and was endowed with all the paraphernalia, regarded with the highest esteem and loved by the subjects, who obeyed him and served his cause with devotion. The king had a council of advisers, whose advice he was under no obligation to accept. The proper administration of the country and the system of defence, both internal and external, were strictly according to the rules, detailed-in the Arthashastra. The army was divided into the four-fold arrangement-cavalry infantry, elephants and chariots. Warriors followed a code of honour and their rules and conventions. The class was characterised by bravery and dash and these were suitably rewarded by the King. There are references made to the standard-bearers, trumpets, drums, conch-flags (1-132), daggers (IV-223), wielders of weapons such as bow and arrow (X-254) and spears (XVIII-464) and other weapons or arms, horsemen or cavaliers fully clad in steel armour from top to toe (XVIII-1047), carrying on invasions and plundering (XVIII-464). Wars on the field of battle between two well-equipped and well-posted camps or individual hand to hand fights are also mentioned by Jnaneshwar. As for internal defence of the Kingdom, night vigil, searches of houses (XI-586) and imprisonment in jails (XVIII-392) were common. The passing references to Mlecchas and Kaikadis clearly indicate that the Poet-philosopher had heard about them or may have seen them during his long tour through Bharat during his life-time. Nowadays there is a tendency to attribute to Jnaneshwar the fact, that he had a presentiment of the approaching attacks of the Muslims in the Deccan and the teachings of the Bhavartha Dipika, were set forth to prepare and train the people of Maharashtra to stand equal or rise superior to the emergency that ultimately did arise. Leaving aside, however, this problematical view, one can generally assert, that the political ideals were found in conformity with the political peace and unified control of one ruler governing his nation. The political conditions were steady without any ideas of a foreign attack and a well-devised system of government made the people happy and contented and no wonder this peace and general prosperity, enabled the scholar and learned man to carry on his pursuit of knowledge and produce literature of merit and abiding interest.

Economic Conditions:

The Social Economy of Maharashtra seems to have been pivoted on agriculture and indigenous trade and industries. The relation of the farmer to the farm was extremely intimate and it was known that without concentrated and close efforts farming land, gardening could never be fruitful (XVIII-94-96). It is said that the gardener waters a tree and ceaselessly labours at its base for a reward from the tree bearing fruit (XVIII-844). Acquaintance with all the processes and implements of farming are observable everywhere in Jnaneshwari. Technical terms like hoe (XVI-329), grain-pits (XVII-285), processes of winnowing (11-130) sugarcane crushing and its various products like jaggery, sugar, molasses (X-32) paddy and its crop and the requirements of good crop of paddy are mentioned (XVIII-368). The Poet-philosopher has a very good advice to give to this class. Farmer when involved in debts is unable to come out of it and his farming is permanently ruined and therefore he should not be involved in debts. In a beautiful simile Jnaneshwar has used all technical terms like Mudha (seed stock), Vadapa (rains), Kharape (pieces of clodless soil), Vaphasa (warmth required for sowing), Chade (through which seed is thrown into soil) and applied them to spiritual matters. (Vl-489 to 492). Further the farmer is required to work in the open field and meets with mirage, Indra’s bow, forest-fire and other natural phenomena. On the whole, the farmer had to toil and moil and deserve his fruits by patient and constant attention and thus be a successful man. In the XIIIth adhyaya all technical words under the term Kshetra are mentioned. Agriculture, on the whole, seems to have been flourishing and the right steps taken at the right time, give an assurance of good results. Next to agriculture, references to trade and crafts may fitly be introduced. In the bazar and market various sorts of clothes—cotton, wool, silk, embroidery and clothing with designs upon it are met with. Businessmen gifted with the skill of salesmanship are able to strike their bargain and enter into a deal. Weaver, goldsmith (XIII-1037; XVII-209), washerman (XIII-466), potter (IX-74), cowherd and cattle, bullockcarts and their drivers (XIV-241), carpenters, showing dolls with mechanism (IX-30), dancers and actors (XVI-361; (IV-48) are mentioned. The money-lender and all the terms connected with the art of lending like capital, usury etc. are also found (VII-178-179). Without the money-lender petty traders cannot carry on their avocations. Successful pursuit of various arts made life flourishing and references to towns, hamlets and cities are due to this condition of life. City with streets and central chowks, mansions of rich people, storied-building, dancers, surgeons, harlots, parks, fruit-gardens clearly vouchsafe a prosperous life and flourishing conditions of Industry and Commerce. Side by side the mansions of the rich (V-114) there is the poor man’s cottage (XIV-219). The prosperity is witnessed by the two principal communities of the town-the goldsmith and jewellers.' Go to their shops and find excellent gold of the best touch (VI-34; VIII-38). Fluctuations in the rates were noticeable. References to gold mines (XVIII-514), mints and minting of coins (VII-22-26), ornaments for ladies and children (1-5), leather currency (IX-454) indicate the high state of civilisation and culture.

The conditions enumerated above clearly show that Maharashtra during the days of the Yadavas was prosperous and peaceful life of the people encouraged literary and other creative activities. The economic conditions of the people caused no anxiety and gave a fruitful field for demoralisation by the introduction of social vices. Superstition, religious traffic-making and growth of diseases and the consequent necessity of physicians and their professional pursuits are mentioned. The inequality between the rich and the poor is perceptible, although the average standard of life is not lower and means of subsistance [subsistence?] are not wanting. Unless the economic conditions were stable and steady, literary activities could not even be conceived of.

Literary and Cultural activities:

The Poet-philosopher has in his monumental work, proved that in his times there was a great literary and cultural activity in Maharashtra. History also bears witness to this. The Yadavas were the champions of arts and learning. They performed sacrifices and encouraged learning. Many works, bearing on astronomy, astrology, music, Vedanta, Dharma, Grammar and medical science, were composed in Sanskrit. The celebrated astrologer of Singhana, named Anantadeva, had a son, named Mahesh-war, who wrote three works on astronomy like “Shekhara” and others. Bhaskaracharya wrote his “Siddhanta Shiromani” “Karana Kuthuhal” and “Lilavati.” At Patana in Khandesh, Changadeva (Bhaskaracharya’s grandson) had established a school of astronomy but of all these the celebrated chief minister of Ramadevaray, Hemadri and his friend Bopadeva composed literary works and specially stimulated knowledge. Hemadri’s “Prashastis“and the introduction of the Modi script are even now acclaimed as the best indication of the propagation of learning. His style of architecture is a wonder even to the modem architect. To these names must be added those of the Mahanubhava poets like Narendra and Bhaskarbhatta. Bhaskarbhatta’s poem on the XIth Skandha of Shrimad Bhagavata, shows the popularity of the Krishna cult in those times. But this all-embracing literary spur and the consequent glory of this period could not be shared equally by all. The political power and fame was shared by the Kshatriyas and the Brahmins, who served the former, may have been the participants of this prosperity. The Vaishyas may have ruled in the domain of commerce and industry and may have produced commercial magnates; but there was no social equality, and inequalities in the distribution of wealth produced the social grades of high and low. Thus literature and cultural progress did not meet the needs of a well-ordered and well-to-do society. We now turn, to the religious tendencies of those times, those sidelights are observable in the Jnaneshwari and contemporary works as well.

Religious, Superstitious and Social deterioration:

The society was governed by Varnashrama Dharma. The learned men of the society were busy in verbal discussions and refutations about monism, qualified monism and dualism and their learned discussions gave neither guidance nor light to the masses. Their thirst of human religion was not to be satisfied by Sanskrit works, which were the monopoly of the higher three castes. They were left in doubt and confusion. This intellectual anarchy has been well-described by Namadeva. The rigour of caste-system was all the more felt even by the saints. The touchables and the untouchables were both equally hammered under the intellectual dominance and the Poet-philosopher and his brothers and a sister were not exempted from this. The religion of intellectual dilenttantism, external purity and excess of ritualism paved the way for superstition, hypocrisy and sectarianism. Lingayats, Jains and Mahanubhavas tried to satisfy the human aspirations and needs of the lower classes and they did attract the masses; superstitious practices are mentioned in the Jnaneshwari. The exorcist, the spell-chanter; the devotee of Khandoba, Bhagats, Garudi (Snakecharmers) (XVIII-607), Kolhati (acrobats) XVIII-606), Naked mendicants (XIII-21)—these are typical vendors of superstitions. They plied their trade playing upon the credulity of the masses. The sacred mark (Tila), long cap (Topi) and Rosary (Mala)—these were the symbols to conjure with the ignorant and the superstitious. Witchcraft seems to be a common rule. Sannyasis, preachers, and worshippers tricked the poor and the illiterate. The cult of Black Magic is mentioned (XVI-398). This religious travesty and supersitious [superstitious?] domination put into bolder relief the social degeneration, degradation and moral decadence. The drunkard and the evils of drink are shown (XIII-533). Concubines are mentioned and described (XIII-746 and IX-329). Side by side with these two classes there was a third class of people, who kept company with pilgrims, travellers and merchants as companions and when they entered a jungle or a forest pounced upon them, looted them and killed them (XIII-337). Popular conventions and belief also point to the state of religious dormancy and easiness of belief.

Family as the unit of the Society:

The conditions prevailing in the Society, as a whole, are depicted above. The point of view of looking at the householder’s life and the worldly relations in general were governed by the regressive path or Nivritti. Between the material and the spiritual the palm of superiority was given to the latter. To lead a householder’s life, however, is not condemned. The Poetphilosopher has shown in his great work that if, rightly lived, sansara removes pessimism and proves itself a source of perennial joy. He has not accentuated on the path of regression or sannyasa or renunciation. Play your part well leaving everything to God. He who is firm at heart and is completely absorbed in the Supreme deals perfectly with the world by establishing normal relations. He who does not command the senses nor is afraid of sensual pleasures, does not neglect to perform the prescribed duties that come to his lot (III 68). To a Karmayogi, gifted with knowledge, sansara is no scarecrow. If you live in the world as a drop of water on the lotus leaf, you need not be afraid of sansara. With this firm belief the Poet-philosopher has proved the value of a strong Family. Let us begin with husband and wife. They live as separate entities, yet they should live as a composite whole.

The life of both culminates into bliss, if the basis is understood by them. In the Thirteenth adhyaya, while detailing the Prakriti and the Purusha, the creation and manifestation of the world is explained as the combined effort of husband and wife. The Purusha is inactive, indifferent and not attached to enjoyment of pleasures; but the Prakriti is active, dynamic and creates where there is nothing. Through her the Purusha gets a local habitation and a name. A good woman is chaste and constitutes a deity of the house. Where she lives there is wealth of happiness and all dealings and relations lead to happiness (VI-448). She lives with restraints and modesty in the world outside; but with her husband she is free and frank. Though gifted with beauty, she would desire for none but her husband. A noble lady loves her husband and the latter gives her due respect. The whole tenor of love, community of interest, and performance of religious duties in a spirit of service to God and the entire success of the family life depends on this consumation. The union of this pair paves the way for parental affection and regard and maintenance of taking good care of children. Mother dotes on her child. Even though she is angry, there is affection in her temper (II-88). The father loves his son and the latter eats from the dish of his father. The father forgives his son, if he is found guilty; because he hopes to reclaim him at a future stage. It is the duty of the son to obey his father and tread in his father’s footsteps. There are ideal families mentioned and described in the Mahabharata and the Ramayana and the Poet-philosopher wishes to reproduce that ideal to strengthen the family-ties and base the family on the strongest foundation of love, trust, cooperative effort and general uplifting of the society through the family. The families are bound together by marriage relations and the celebrations of marriages in those times have been referred to in a number of adhyayas (IV, VI, VII, VIII, XII, XIII, XVI, XVIII). Marriage ceremony with the various stages in the ceremonies—both religious and social-like marriage feasts, the rights and privileges of the various parties from the Bride’s side and the Bridegroom’s side, the various dainties and dishes and the basic idea of marriage in the task of preservation and extension of the species are mentioned in a number of adhyayas and in different contexts (VII, VIII. XI, XIV, XVI, XVII, XVIII). The family unit is thus mentioned, illustrated and the aims and objects of the family are given in clear and unmistakable terms-both spiritually and maternally. The final aim of the Poet-philosopher was to emphasize the necessity of building up the society on strong basis of a well-organised and systematised family unit, so that the various abuses and forces working at the disintegration of the family may be permanently eradicated to the lasting good of the society through the urge of Religious goal.

Other aspects of life touched on:

Over and above the brief indication of the sidelights of human life, reflected in the Jnaneshwari, the monumental work contains much information about the Society and its various aspects. Popular beliefs are freely touched on—for example a kind of eye ointment enables a man to see the place, where treasures are hidden (VI-458), a slight error in the chanting of the mantra makes the reciter possessed of a ghost (I-190). A number of beliefs about the ghosts, their place of location, the existence and the activities attributed to them are freely used by the Poet-philosopher to illustrate his commentary. Astronomical references, process of evaporation (XV-399) eclipses (XVIII-110) constellations and planets and astrological beliefs in propitious and unpropitious activities, planets are not exempt from the observation of the poet. Neither is Jnaneshwari oblivious to the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Winged creation and Poetic conventions connected with chakora and chataka bees, chakravaka, tortoise, swans and stork are scattered throughout the work. The references are scattered and too numerous to be given in detail; we can here make a general observation that if Literature is the mirror of life, this “Mirror of life” is reflected in full in the Bhavar-tha Dipika, leaving the reader in wonder and astonishment at the genius of the boy prodigy. His observation, strengthened by his knowledge of yoga made him a keen observer of Nature and her ramifications in all her complexity and variety; and all this complex existence he has requisitioned while writing his enclyclopaedic commentary on the Divine Song.

In conclusion, an attempt, which is necessarily and obviously, not expansive but which was necessary in a work of this type, is made in this note to draw the attention of the reader to the question of assessing the political, economic, social, religious and sociological value of this work. In general, it may be remarked that the Poetsaint was a great reformer and a reconciliationist (Samanvyaya vadi). He found the various sects, schisms, and ideologies in his own times, carrying on wordy warfare and great stress was laid on these discussions arguments, and refutations. The sectarian fervour of the followers of Shankara, Madhava, and Ramanuja on one hand and the Sunyavadins. and the charvarkas, and the Atheist Kapila, on the other, was at its height; and consequently the real value of religion in its emotional development was lost sight of and its purpose was defeated. On one hand there was a handful of learned erudites, monopolising the entire Brahma-Vidya and ruthlessly exploiting the ignorance of the vast sea of credulous, ignorant and simple-minded people of other castes. To the latter, human duties and relations and their value in shaping and moulding the life of the individual to serve the larger interests of the humanity at large, was a Sealed Book. Jnaneshwar, reminiscent of the tyranny of the orthodox and the bigoted exercised on these children of a sannyasi wrote his commentary in a spirit of developing universal consciousness and outlook and thus in a way democratised religion and opened the Gates of Immortality to all without any distinction of caste, creed or sex. He was the Pioneer among the galaxy of saints and reformers of Maharashtra and hence his greatness and the far-reaching effects impressed on the masses of population. He was a truly universal Friend and the Bhagavat Dharma, which he preached through the Bhagavat Gita was a genuine Universal Religion treating the universe as his own home.