Preface: A Brief Survey of Sources of Kerala History

It is pertinent to deal, before we take up discussion of the subject proper, with the question as to what is meant by the term history. Various western scholars have defined history in various ways. From the study of their definitions we arrive at the conclusion that history is a narrative of events connected with men. Its purpose is not to give statements of facts or chronological lists of events. It is a a narrative devoted to the exposition of the natural unfolding and interdependence of the events treated. More clearly it is a systematic written account of events particularly those which effect a nation, an institution, science or art. Its purpose is to explain past events as steps in human progress, the study of characters and significance of events.

Now applying this definition or the general consensus with regard to the sense of history to Sanskrit literature, we find that we don’t have history here at all. What we have here are the historical Kavyas, Natakas, Champus etc., not histories.

The ancient and the only available complete definition of history is:-

“dharmārthakāmamokṣāṇāmupadeśasamanvitam
pūrvavṛttakathāyuktamitihāsaṃ pracakṣate || ”

This was the sense of history of ancient Indians.

The modern state of Kerala was formed in the year 1956. Prior to its formation, Kerala as a seperate geographical unit was divided into three political units known as Malabar, Cochin and Travancore. The reconstruction of the history of the integrated state of Kerala also was started in the recent years only. However, studies in the history of Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore with occasional overlapings, were undertaken by a few scholars by the end of the 19th C. itself.

The area between the western Ghats and the Arabian sea in Penisular India was known as Kerala in ancient Sanskrit literature. Some scholars argued that the term ‘Kerala’ is derived from the word ‘Kera’ which is the name of a common palm tree in Kerala. There is also a view that the word Keralam (Cheralam) is made of the two words cher (sand) and alam (region) and that it literally means slushy land. The word Cheralam might have, in course of time, got itself Sanskrtised as Keralam. The land of Kerala is also alternatively known as Malabar which means ‘the hilly country’.

The quasi historical works of the medieval and the historical works of the modern periods of Kerala were written mainly on the basis of legends and traditional sources. Till recently the historian of Kerala never made any serious effort to come out of the hard grip of the traditional and legendary sources for writing the ancient history of Kerala.

The early history of Kerala is completely shrouded in obscurity. The history prior to about the 9th C. AD is practically non existence to us. The reason for this is the absence of any records. Musakavamsa Mahakavya written by Atula, the court poet of Srikantha the ruler of Kolattunadu in North Kerala in the 11th C. AD, is generally considered as the first historical chronicle of Kerala.

Though Atula had to mixup historical facts with legends, he has given the chronology of the kings of the Musaka dynasty from its founder Ramaghata to Srikantha. Being a court poet Atula has tried to relate the geneological origin of his king to Parasurama and the Yadavakula. There are a vide range of Sanskrit works produced in Kerala, which are valuable sources of historical facts. So there is a full scope for investigation into the valuable historical facts abounding in such literary works of Kerala. This study may shed some light on the dark periods of Kerala History. First of all an attempt is made here to enumerate briefly all sources of Kerala History.

A history of ancient Kerala is almost a closed book in the absence of authentic data. In the reconstruction of history we have to examine many sources. Sources help to reconstruct the history of any country and any society. For a historian, the reconstruction of the ancient period of Kerala is a difficult task, as there developed no separate faculty of history in ancient Kerala. But the sources available in Kerala like, material remains, inscriptions, coins, monuments, arts and crafts, the accounts of foreign travellers, literary works ect. help to a historian for the reconstruction of the ancient history of this specific geographical unit.

Sources of Kerala History can mainly be divided into two broad divisions -Traditional sources and Non-traditional sources. The traditional sources include all types of oral and written legends and fables relating to the origin of Kerala and the development of the society. The non-traditional sources include Archaeological evidences, Monuments, Epigraphy, Numismatics, Foreign notices and Literary works. The non traditional sources are divided into primary and secondary sources. The evidence that directly signify a historical event or a situation are called primary sources, which include archaeological materials, coins, monuments, copper plates, inscriptions, seals etc. The evidences that indirectly relate with a specific historical event or a situation are known as the secondary sources, comprising written records, literary evidences, travellers accounts etc. The information given in the secondary sources has to be compared and verified with other sources to make sure of its authenticity The works written on the basis of the informations collected from the primary and secondary sources are called the traditional sources. Text books of authority are considered as the traditional sources. The traces of vast history of Kerala are scattered in the above sources. If we go through these sources with a keen insight, we can get many valuable points for reconstructing the past history of Kerala.

Archaeological Survey

Archaeology is generally understood to be a subject which deals with the study of antiquities. This not only includes the collection of old subjects made by man, but the various methods to search for old objects and the attempts to reconstruct the history of past events by the study of objects or things so collected. Archaeology, in brief is the pursuit of the history of man. Archaelogy which is called the hand maid of history is often a reliable guide to the historian.

Archaeological sources constitute the main source materials for the reconstruction of the ancient period in Kerala History. The relics of tools, weapons, burial sites, monuments, buildings, arts and crafts, coins etc. are studied by the archeologists for the reconstruction of the ancient history. Archaeological excavation have brought out the relics of both prehistoric and historic periods.

The reconstruction of the history of man, from the time man first appeared on this earth. In such a study everything associated with man is included. Thus we study not only man and things or objects made by man, but the history of past or ancient climate, astronomy, geography -Such as the rise and fall of sea beaches, land bridges, between consinents the formation or disappearances of deserts, changes in river beds -as well as agriculture, metallurgy the art of making pottery, weaving, spinning, clothes and clothing materials (Such as cotton, silk, flax) houses and materials for house making the nature of habitation, density of population and communications.

In all these, the traditional sources, the record of dynasties and kings and their wars are reconstructed. Such a study which goes to the root or foundation of things connected with man. In its construction archaeology forms leading and important part.

Extensive excavations have been conducted at various places in Malabar like Feroke, Chevayur, and Chathanparamaba. However, the most important excavations site related with the ancient period of Kerala history in Malabar is the Edakkal Caves in Wayanad. Archaeological excavation have also been conducted at Punnol near Mahe, Sendurini near Quilon, Tenmala, Anchanad Valley in Idukki, Naduvil near Taliparamba, the river beds of Palakkad etc. resulting in the production of new informations.

Monuments

The monuments are not so important for the political history as for the cultural history. Historical relics and monuments provide ample information for the study of the life style, cultural aspects and the architectural style of the ancient period. There are so many monuments and historical relics spread through out Kerala of the past which help for the reconstruction of the past society. The illustrate the development of the art and religion and indirectly reflect the economic conditions of the time. In the monuments may be included the megalitis, stone images, temples,churches, mosques, palaces forts and historical sites. Temples of different style, idols, churches, mosques, forts, palaces etc are the main historical relics and monuments available in Kerala.

The megalithic monuments such as dolmens, menhirs, port-hole cists, hat stones, umbrella stones and rock cut caves discovered from places likes Anjunad Valley, Trichur Portkalam Eyyal, Cheramanangad, Kattakambal, Taliparamba, Edakkal etc. help to throw light on the pre historic culture of Kerala. The stone images discovered from the places like Karumadi Mavelikkara, Bharanikavu, Maruthurkulangara and Pallikkal are considered to be fine examples of sculpture of the 7, 8, 9th centuries of Kerala History.

The temples in Kerala built at different periods represent different styles. Rock-cut temples were the earliest temples built in Kerala. It was Mahendra, the Pallava king of 6th century started the construction of the rock-cut temples in South India. The influence of the Pallava style is visible in some of the rock-cut temples in Kerala.

The origin of the sculptural temples in Kerala may be traced to the beginning of the 9th A.D. A study of the stylistic evidences revealed by them helps to throw considerable light on the evolutions of Kerala art, architecture and sculptural. The vast majority of the Kerala temples have been built in the Kerala style with its characteristic Sri Kovil and predominance of wood architecture, but there are also a few which represent the Dravidian style.

The Bhagavati temple at Vizhinjam is the earliest specimen of the Dravidian style of temple architecture. It is built in the style of the early chola temples and has been assigned to the 9th C AD. Padmanabha Swami temple at Trivandram is a worthy modal of Dravidan style. The temples of Kerala are also famous for their wood carvings and mural paintings. Wood carvings of exquisite charm representing puranic themes and personages may be seen at Thuravur, Pazhur, Guruvayour etc. Mural paintings can be seen in the temple like Vaikkam, Guruvayoor, Ettumanoor etc.

From temples we get a collection of inscriptions mostly belonging to the Brahmana settlements. The records imply the nature of the temple society the economic life of the settlement and refer to the structural details of brahmana cast -temple managing committee, the sub committees etc. Temples bear some common features and they throw some light into a particular period. This will be helpful to us in determining some chronology in Kerala history. The temples throw some light on the historical importance of the country. The temples represented the artistic creation of that age. So they have a great influence in making the history.

The Jewish and Christian churches and Muslim mosques are also of historical and architectural importance. The churches built in Kerala show indigenous and foreign style of architecture. Huge pillars, spacious rooms and high towers are the common characteristics of the churches in Kerala. This style has close resemblances to the temples styles of construction. The presence of the cross at the entrance of some of the churches is considered as the result of its contact with the style of temple construction.

The architectural style of the Muslim mosques in Kerala are more or less of indigenous style. The Kodungallur mosque, considered as the first in Kerala in built purely on the Hindu style. A peculiar feature of Kerala is the existence of the temples, mosques and churches together at one place. This shows the friendliness existed between different religious in ancient and medieval Kerala.

The surviving palaces and forts in Kerala though of a later origin have much historical importance. The Padmanabhapuram palace was built in the indigenous style of architecture. The original structure of this palace was built in the 16th century and later it was modified during the 18th C. A.D. The palaces built by the Zamorins at Calicut, Pazhassi Raja, Kadathanad Raja etc. are also historically important.

Some forts like Tellichery, Canannore, Bekal etc. which are found in Kerala also have historical importance to a great extent.

Coins

The study of coins also provide useful sources for the reconstruction of the ancient period in Kerala History. Coins help us to know the economic conditions, the trading activities, the reign of various rulers and the availability of metals in the ancient period. Indigenous and foreign made coins of various types of the ancient period have been discovered from the different parts of Kerala.

The various rulers who ruled Kerala at different periods has issued many types of coins. Coins called ‘Rasi’ and ‘Panam’ seems to have issued by the Cheras. The silver coins discovered from Thirunelveli in 1944 bear the name of the Kerala king, vira kerala varma. ‘Panam’ was the name of the coins issued both by the Kolathiris and Zamorins. The kings of Travancore issued both silver and gold coins known as ‘Anantavarahan’ and Anantarayan.

References can be seen in the literary works about various coins in circulation during the contemporary period. The exchange of coins with goods are often mentioned in these works. The denominations of coins help us to understand the exchange ration of coins and their comparative value with other coins prevalent in those days.

Inscriptions

Inscriptions found at several places in Kerala are an important source material for the reconstruction of earlier periods of Kerala History. They furnish valuable material for the reconstruction of the dynastic history of the various kingdom and also throw light on the political social and cultural life of the people in different periods. They give us an insight made for the management of temples, the nature of the relationship between landlords and tenants, functioning of educational institutional like salais etc. in early days. The dates, symbols, and astronomical details such as the position of Jupiter and other constellations obtained from them have been helpful in solving many a vexed problem in Kerala history and chronology. They are found at brick walls, temple walls, rocks etc. Almost all of them are prepared in vatteluthu script of Malayalam language the exception of a few prepared in sanskrit and Tamil language.

Inscriptions belonging to the early periods of Kerala history are not available. So the historians often rely upon the ancient Brahmi inscriptions discovered from Tamil Nadu referring to Kerala. The Pallava and Pandya inscriptions of 7th and 8th centuries refer to the Pandyan invasion on the southern parts of Kerala. The inscriptions discovered from Kerala belong to 9th c. and after, especially upto 12th C. AD. The number of inscriptions discovered from Kerala is less when compared with that of the inscriptions discovered from the other parts of South India. Prof: Sundaran Pilla was the first person to write about the inscription in Kerala in 1894. This was followed by the discovery of a number of inscriptions by various scholars and were published accordingly.

The earliest ruler of Kerala about whom epigraphical evidence is available was Rajasekhara Varma, the chera king of Mahodayapuram mentioned in the Vazhappalli inscription near Changanasseri. This is written in the textual alphabets of Sanskrit language. An important Sanskrit inscription of Adityavarma Sarvanganatha (1376-1383 AD) of Venad found in the Krshnaswami shrine of the Sri Padmanabhaswami temple at Tvm is in Grandha characters and its records the repair of the shrine by this illustrious king.

Among the Sanskrit inscriptions of Kerala, those issued by Sangramedhire Ravivarman Kulasekhara are especially notable. The inscription of Marthandavarma found in the Sri Padmanabha Swami Temple are in sanskrit and they record the story of the reconstruction of the temple by Marthandavarma in the first half of the 18th C AD.

Inscription relating to the reign of Goda Ravivarma ruled in the 10th C are found at many places. The most important inscription during the perumal period in Kerala from the historical point of view is the Jewish copper plate of 1000 AD. Epigraphical evidences are also available relating to the kings of southern Kerala.

The Mampilli inscription of Sri Vallabhan kota, the venad ruler of the 10th C is the first inscription in Kerala recorded according to the Kollam era. Many other inscriptions of historical importance have also been discovered in Kerala, the Tiruvalla copper plates refer to the Social customs. The inscription found at the Vadakkunatha temple at Trichur explains the rulers and regulations imposed upon the tenants.

Apart from the inscriptions many number of Palm leaf documents relating to various aspects of social and political and economic life of the medieval society of Kerala. Most of these documents among these are the ‘Grandhavaris’ relating to the transactions of temples and royal households. Thus the study of the inscriptions would show that they are of inestimabel value in reconstructing the history of Kerala particularly of the Pre-Portuguese period.

Foreign Notices

Many number of foreign travellers and visitors has visited Kerala from the ancient days itself. Some of them have left their travel accounts. As their accounts were prepared without any external pressures they have become more objective than other written records. The limitations of these source materials lies in the fact that most of those travellers had accepted the legends and hear say as historical facts and recorded them as authentic informations. However the authenticity of the travellers accounts can be established in comparison with the informations received from the indigenous sources like that of the material remains, coins, and official records.

Folk Traditions and Place Names

Two new type of sources came into the light of historical writing in the modern period are folk tradition and place names which reflect the social consciousness of the people in a given society and in a given period. The small geographical units in Kerala were given seperate names based on the nature of faune and flora, presence of rivers, tanks, palaces forts etc. and caste of the people who lived in that particular area. Some of the place names have helped the historian to find out the exact location of the salt producing centres of the ancient period. The study of place names as a source material for the reconstruction of the earlier Kerala history is getting more and more importance now a days.

Tamil Literary Works

The ancient Tamil anthologies popular known as the Sangam works constitute an important literary source material for the reconstruction of the ancient period in Kerala History. Only some of the Sangam works like Akananuru, Purananuru, Silappatikaram and Patittupattu throw light upon the society of Kerala during the early centuries of the Christian Era. As these works were consolidated at a later period, the society depicted in these works belong to different periods.

Malayalam Literary works

Though works in Malayalam language started to be written from 9th century onwards itself, works of historical importance started to be written only from 13th C. onwards in Malayalam Manipravalam works written in a curious mixture of Sanskrit & Malayalam from 13th C onwards are historically useful to study about the society in general. Unniyaccicaritham, Unniyaticaritam and Unnicciruthevi caritham are the most important works of medieval Kerala containing historical references. Ananthapura Varnanam written during the 14th C gives the details about the Trivandrum city. Unnunili sandesam, Kokasandesam, Candrotsavam etc. give insight to the contemporary Kerala society. Mamankam Kilippattu and the Grandhavaris like Mathilaka Grandhavari & Zamurins Grandhavari etc. help the historian to know the details of the dynastic and political conditions of Kerala in the earlier centuries.

Sanskrit Literary Sources

There are a large number of historical works in various forms in Sanskrit. The information supplied by the Sanskrit works is at once legendary and historical. Sanskrit literature can be made use of to yield information about the social history of a land and is often one of the main sources for reconstructing the ancient social customs and manners of the respective periods. History as a separate study has not been seriously treated in sanskrit literature. Apart from literary merits, the sanskrit literature of Kerala contains several historical accounts of the country.

Among the sanskrit literature the prasastis, to eulogise the patrons at various time, form as indispensable source material for the history of kings and kingdoms. Five such laudatory compositions of Narayanabhatta of Melpattur are important. They are (1) Manavikramaprasasti eulogising Manavikrama of Calicut (2) Virakerala Prasasti on Virakerala Varma of Cochin (3) Devanarayaprasasti eulogising king Devanarayana of Ambalapuzha (4) Bimbalisa prasasti on the ruler of Vatakkumkur (5) Gosrinagaravarana Prasasti. These prasastis and some other prasastis like Visakaraja prasasti, Ramavarma prasasti, Kesavadasa prasasti etc. are bear some historical details. Some Kshetra-mahatmyas like Vyaghrapuri-mahatmya, Anantasayanaksetra-mahatmya etc. and Stala-mahatmyas like Sucindrasthala-mahatmya etc. throw light on the study of temples and holly places in Kerala.

Among other works either in praise of a king or a patron or on modern political history or of autobiographical character are also have some historical evidences. Such works like Vancisastava Naksataramala etc.

There are a large number of historical Mahakavyas in sanskrit literature, supply sufficient or accurate historical material. The earliest work known to us in this field is Mahodayapuresacharitha, traditionally attributed to Tolan, giving an account of ancient Kerala. The discovery of the historical mahakavya Musakavamsa composed by Atula which deserves a high position as historical work which throws light on the ancient history of the Musaka kingdom. Sivavilasa of Damodara Cakyar is a semi historical mahakavya it throws light on the history of the Kayamkulam.(Odanad) and Cochin (Perumputappu) kingdom of those days and their interrelationship. Padmanabha vijaya by Subrahmanya Kavi was another historical mahakavya described the greatness of the Trivandram and the Padmanabhapuram. Ramavarmakavya of Kochunni Thampuran gives the life history of the Cochin King Ramavarma. Ramavarma carita of Paccumuttatu dealing with the achievements of Ayilyam Tirunal Maharaja and incidently of the other ancestors of Ayilyam Tirunal like Visakham Tirunal Ramavarma, Viramarthanda Varma and others. Visakhavijaya of Kerala Varma Valiya Koil Thampuran gives the life history of the Travancore king Visakham Thirunal. Ramavarma Vijaya of Kunhan Variyar describes the life history of the King Ramavarma. It also highly useful to learn about the history of the Cochin kingdom of that period. Vancindravilasa of Sankara Subrahmania Sastri narrated the biographical sketch of the Travancore King Srimulam Tirunal. This work reveal the historical aspect of the Travancore kingdom of that period.

There are many Mahakavyas produced and published in Kerala after independence. Among these the Keralodaya of Dr. K.N. Ezhuthachan dealing with the entire history of Kerala, political, social and cultural against the background of south Indian history. Srinarayana Vijaya of Muthukulam Sreedharan dealing with the life and teaching of Srinarayana Guru, social reformer of Kerala.

Sandesakavyas gives us some historical details. It contains good dead of historical materials though the description of the routes to be followed by the messengers in the Sandesakayam. The Sandesa Kavyas play an important role in depicting the social history of their ages. They are noteworthy because of the geographical, historical, social and cultural information they supply about the land.

Some of them are very important from the historical stand point. They are the Sukasandesa of Lakshmidasa, Hamsa sandesa of Purna Saraswathi, The Kokila sandesa of Uddanda sastri, the Mayura sandesa of Udayaraja, the Kamasandesa of Mathrdatta, The Bhrnga sandesa of Vasudeva, Subhagasandesa of Narayana, Catakasandesa of a brahmin, Neelakantha sandesa of Punnasseri Sreedharan Nambi, Viprasandesa of Kochunni thampuran, Sarika sandesa of Ramapanivada, Cakorasandesa of anonymous authorship etc.

Some short poems gives us much information on some of the important historical figures of ancient Kerala. Among these Agnivamsarajakatha by anonymous authorship, Srimulacaritha of Ganapatisastri, Citrodayamani of Sambasiva Sastri etc. are important.

In addition to the works, Kerala has to her credit a good number of Campus having historical importance. The most important among the Campus are Balarama vijaya and Ramavarma Vijaya, Balarama Vijaya of Sitarama deals with the heroic exploits of prince Balarama, the heir apparent to throne of Bimbla. Ramavarma Vijaya by anonymous written on the exploits of Swathi Tirunal Maharaja of Travancore. It is an account of a pilgrimage of king Ramavarma to Kanyakumari.

Some of the sanskrit dramas produced in Kerala at different periods have details about the society of ancient Kerala. Among these the Tapati samvarana and Subhadradhananjayam of dramatist Kulasekhara are the earliest works of historical value in Sanskrit. The Pradyumnabhyudaya of Ravivarma Kulasekhara gives us interesting glimpses of the intellectual attainments of the royal author. The Ramavarmavilasam and Ratnaketudaya of Balakavi reconstructing the medieval history of Cochin. Balamarthanda vijaya of Devanarayana is related with the rule of Martandavarma, the ruler of Travancore. The Samanvaya, Raksapurusaka, Yogollasita of Aroor Krishnapisharoti also describing the ancient Kerala history.

Miscellaneous works like Sankaranarayana’s commentory, Vivarana, on the astronamical work Lakhubhaskariya give some historical information. Lilatilakam the great work in 8th chapters dealing with grammar and poetics. In relation to Malayalam with examples from Malayalam literature. This work also have historical value. Narayana Bhattatiris introductory portion of his grammar work prakriya sarvaswam says the great qualities of his royal patron Devanarayana of Ambalappuzha. Samudrabandhas commentary on Alankara sarvaswam also have some historical details. The earliest works like Aitareya aranyaka, Ramayana, Mahabharatha, Puranas like Vayupurana, Matsya, Padma, Skanda, Bhavisya, Markandeya, Brahmanda etc. also contain reference to Kerala.

Traditional sources

The history of ancient Kerala was written and accepted on the basis of traditional sources made up of legends and fables. These legends and fables are conveniently prepared as a part of the ideological hegemony of the higher sections of the society.

The traditional sources of Kerala history is mainly connected with the Parasurama’s story. Parasurama legend relating to the origin of Kerala would also help us to understand some of the basic facts relating to the geography of ancient Kerala. Legend has is that Parasurama threw his Parasu accross the sea from Gokarnam to Kanyakumari and water receded upto the spot were it fell. The tract of territory to thrown up is said to have constituted the land of Kerala, otherwise called Bhargavaksethram or Parasurama ksethram.

The most popular traditional source on Kerala history is the book called Keralolpatti. The book was written and consolidated in a much later period with all the available fables and legends regarding the origin of Kerala but only favourable to the upper sections of the society. The general assumption of the historians is that Keralolpatti was consolidated not earlier than 17th century AD. According to the version of Keralolpatti, the land of Kerala was regained from the sea by Parasurama. The story of Parasurama seems to have taken from Brahmandapurana. The stories in Keralolpatti have no chronological order and accountability. It is assumed that Keralolpatti was consolidated by the Nambutiri brahmins of Kerala in a later period to justify their social, political and economic superiority over the other sections of the society.

There are several poems written by Kerala authors in the legendary style in Sanskrit literature. Among these Kerala-mahatmya is a work dealing with the legends of ancient Kerala history containing more than 2000 verses in six cantos.

Every historian will have his own historical perspective and ideological approaches, when he tries to reconstruct history of a given society of a given period. He is to select the necessary sources from all the available sources. However, an attempt has been made in this Thesis to collect and asses various Sanskrit sources bearing on Kerala history and to reveal, the historical details contained in them, so that the study may shed some light on the ancient history of Kerala.