1. Ancient Literary References on Sexuality

It is significant to understand the social vision of Kāmaśāstra discourse in ancient India. Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi states that the position of the Kāmasūtra, which models itself upon the Arthaśāstra, is totally different. It was meant for the upper classes possessed of learning and leisure, who could thereby practice the art of love with remarkable thoroughness. The erotic literature is the source of voluptuous sculptures that decorated royal assembly halls. They point to the luxury of the class in power (1975: 281).

While going back to the oldest references about sexuality we will reach up to Ṛgveda. As the earliest available literary source in the world, Ṛgveda provides a clear picture about sexuality of its earliest period. Sexual contacts with blood-relatives was not considered vile or forbidden. Ṛgveda 10. 10. 3 confirms this inference. Here is a line from Yama-Yamī dialogues.

They constitute the brother-sister duo.

“O Yama! Even those immortals (Gods) seek that a mortal should have a splendid son. Let your soul and mine, therefore, be knit together, and you, being progenitor and husband of mine, enter into my body”^[1].

It can be clearly said that at the time of the composition of ṛks, vedic society, obviously started to define boundary ridges of incestuous acts. The above mentioned customs were also considered as evil practice. (“What we never did before, shall we do now?” 10. 10. 4). The Ṛgvedic society seems to be one of the examples of a cultural transmission, especially in subjects like sexuality. Yamī needs sexual relation with her brother Yama. Yamī justifies the arguments to strengthen her requirement. But Yama was not ready to accede to Yamī’s request; he undoubtedly rejects it. Anyhow, the conversational hymn Yamayamīsamvāda (Ṛgveda, 10. 10) is an open conflict between two ancient concepts of cultures. The concept of family was based on the sexual relations. The ban of incest was also there. So many examples are seen in Ṛgveda on different kinds of sexual relationships. The story of Romaśā (Ṛgveda, 1. 126), conversational hymns of Agastya and Lopāmudrā (Ṛgveda, 1. 179), Urvaśī and Purūravas (Ṛgveda, 10. 95) etc. are some of the examples.

The Ṛgvedic period was one of transformation in the concept of male-female relationships. There were no deep-rooted strict rules on sexuality. The Ṛgvedic culture viewed all kinds of relationships in a tolerable way. There existed relationships between unmarried people, extramarital relationships, polygamy, divorce, courtesans, widow remarriage and above all normal marriage ceremony was also practiced as a divine institution. Generally, Ṛgvedic society tried to restrict sexual relationships between close relatives and in later times objections increased against such relationships (Parameswaran C. N., 2003: 181-182).

It has been observed that the Upaniṣads mainly proclaim the path of liberation. This is proved by the references from two of the oldest and chief Upaniṣads-Chāndogya and Bṛhadāraṇyaka. But the Upaniṣads also promoted and highlighted extreme love of life other than the invisible gain named “Supreme Liberation”^[2]. Some of the references regarding the material pleasure especially sexual desire from those Upaniṣads may be quoted here.

“Udgītha” is an invocation or hymn referred to in the Chāndogyopaniṣad, where the letters “ut” means respiration (Prāṇa), “gī” is speech (Vāk) and “tha” is aliment. Everything is supported by food. This trio is interpreted as three regions namely heaven, atmosphere and earth or sun, wind and fire. So it is claimed that one who worships this Udgītha in a right way, will obtain elemental treasures and anything which one desires.(1. 3. 6-8).

In Chāndogyopaniṣad there is a passage about how to attain prosperity and desires.

“One summons-that is a Hiṅkāra. He makes request-that is a Prastāva. Together with the woman he lies down-that is an Udgīta. He lies upon the woman-that is a Pratihāra. He comes to the end-that is a Nidhana. He comes to the finish-that is a Nidhana. This is the Vāmadevya Sāma as woven upon copulation. He who knows thus this Vāmadevya Sāma as woven upon copulation comes to copulation, procreates himself from every copulation, reaches a full length of life, lives long, and becomes great in offspring and in cattle, great in fame. One should never abstain from any woman. That is his rule”^[3].

There are numerous references in Upaniṣads considering sexual intercourse as sacrifice and worship. Another example from the Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad about the sacrifice performed for getting a son may be quoted here.

“Woman is fire, O Gautama, her haunch the fuel; the hairs on the body the smoke; the organ of generation the flame; cohabitation the coals; the fits of enjoyment the sparks. The gods offer seed in this fire. From this offering man springs forth. He lives as long as he lives”^[4]. Here is another: “Verily, of created things here earth is the essence; of earth, water; of water, plants; of plants, flowers; of flowers, fruits; of fruits, man (Puruṣa); of man, semen”^[5].

“Prajāpati (Lord of creatures) bethought himself:

“Come, let me provide him a firm basis!” So he created woman. When he had created her, he revered her below.-Therefore one should revere woman below.-He stretched out for himself that stone which projects. With that he impregnated her”^[6].

“Her lap is a sacrificial altar; her hairs, the sacrificial grass; her skin, the soma-press. The two lips of the vulva are the fire in the middle. Verily, indeed, as great as is the world of him who sacrifices with the Vājapeya (“Strength-libation”) sacrifice, so great is the world of him who practices sexual intercourse, knowing this; he turns the good deeds of women to himself. But he who practices sexual intercourse without knowing this-women turn his good deeds unto themselves”^[7].

These are some of the glaring examples from Upaniṣads about the practice of bodily pleasures. In course of time these thoughts were reconstructed and misinterpreted as to fit into the path of spirituality and morality.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

uśanti ghā te amṛtāsa etadekasya cittyajasaṃ martyasya |
ni te mano manasi dhāyyasme janyuḥ patistanvamā viviśyāḥ ||  (ṛgvedaḥ, 10. 10. 3)

[2]:

For a detailed reading on the love of life in Upaniṣadic literature see Dharmaraj Adat, 2005: 108-117.

[3]:

upamantrayate sa hiṃkāro jñapayate sa prastāvaḥ striyā saha śete sa udgīthaḥ pratistrī saha śete sa pratihāraḥ kālaṃ gacchati tannidhanaṃ pāraṃ gacchati tannidhanametadvāmadevyaṃ mithune protam || sa ya evametadvāmadevyaṃ mithune protaṃ veda mithunībhavati mithunānmithunātprajāyate sarvamāyureti jyogjīvati mahānprajayā paśubhirbhavati mahānkīrtyā na kāṃcana pariharettadvratam || (chāndogyopaniṣat, 2. 13. 1-2)

[4]:

yoṣā vā agnirgautama tasyā upastha eva samillomāni dhūmo yonirarciryadantaḥ karoti te'ṅgārā abhinandā visphuliṅgāstasminnetāsminnagnau devā reto juhvati tasyā āhutyai puruṣaḥ saṃbhavati sa jīvati yāvajjīvatyatha yadāmriyate || (bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣat, 6. 2. 13)

[5]:

eṣāṃ vai bhūtānāṃ pṛthivī rasaḥ pṛthivyā āpo'pāmoṣadhaya oṣadhīnāṃ puṣpāṇi puṣpāṇāṃ phalāni phalānāṃ puruṣaḥ puruṣasya retaḥ || (bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣat, 6. 4. 1)

[6]:

sa ha prajāpatirīkṣāṃcakre hantāsmai pratiṣṭhāṃ kalpayānīti striyaṃ sasṛje tāṃ sṛṣṭvā'dha upāsta tasmātstriyamadha upāsīta sa etaṃ prāñcaṃ grāvāṇamātmana eva samudapārayatte naināmabhyasṛjat || (bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣat, 6. 4. 2)

[7]:

tasyā vedirupastho lomāni bahiścarmādhiṣavaṇe samiddho madhyatastau muṣkau sa yāvān ha vai vājapeyena yajamānasya loko bhavati tāvānasya loko bhavati ya evaṃ vidvānadhopahāsaṃ caratyasāṃ strīṇāṃ sukṛtaṃ vṛṅkte'tha ya idamavidvānadhopahāsaṃ caratyasya striyaḥ sukṛtaṃ vṛñjate || (bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣat, 6. 4. 3)