Artistic Connectivity between Amarāvatī and Sri Lanka

The lower Kṛṣṇa valley played a significant role in disseminating Andhra culture to the different parts of South and South East Asia. As a consequence we find Andhra’s indelible stamp on various art objects of South and South East Asia.

The nearest neighbour Sri Lanka was heavily touched by Indian influences. The advent of Buddhism in the region played a significant role in the spread of Indian culture. Amarāvatī’s artistic influences radiated to Sri Lanka and hence imprints of Amarāvatī art were visible on art reproductions from Sri Lanka.

The artistic connectivity between Amarāvatī and Sri Lanka can be seen in the representations of moonstones (Chandraśila). Moonstones are semi-circular slabs and are placed at the entrances of religious edifices^[1] (Pl 47a). They are called Sandakapahana in Singhalese^[2]. The moonstone at the entrance of Amarāvatī–Nāgārjunākoṇḍa (Pl 47b) monastic establishment agrees in form, though not in design with the Ceylonese examples. In addition to it the entrance of the University site of Nāgārjunākoṇḍa is also adorned by moonstone of similar design to that of Amarāvatī. The moonstone decoration in Sri Lanka is very ornate. It usually consisted of concentric band of decorations beginning with an outer zone of luxuriant foliage followed by a procession of animals. The band of animals is followed by a belt of stylized vegetation^[3]. It can be stated that the ornate moonstones passively evolved from simple varieties. Further it is suggested by scholars that Chandraśila emerged as an extra architectural feature that was one of the components of the entrance to the monastic shrines^[4]. It is usually suggested that the moonstones evolved in Sri Lanka and was imported to the lower Kṛṣṇa valley.

The moonstones were flanked by guardstones which are stones with rounded tops and carvings of vases of flowers or large dwarfs or Nāga kings holding vases of flowers^[5] (Pl 47c). Interestingly the hooded Nāgas with elegant proportion recall the nāga figures from Amarāvatī (Pl 47d). The vases of the naāgas, Nāgārāja and nāginis seen in the guardstones from Sri Lanka signify prosperity and good luck.

Human nāga with hoods of cobra head and polycephalous serpent in theriomorphic shape is found in Sri Lanka. Both these forms are seen in Amarāvatī. Among theriomorphic depictions of nāgas in Sri Lanka the most striking image of nāga is visible at Mihintale. Here five hooded snake is carved. The snake rises five or seven feet out of deep waters of a tank in which the lower part of the body is hidden. This is one of the most awe striking images of nāga found in the country. Another significant figure of nāga is found on the south end of the west frontispiece at the Abhayagiri dagaba^[6]. Similar iconography is visible in the reliefs depicting nāga with a parasol in the Ruwanweli dagaba and Abhayagiri dagaba^[7]. Similar representations of nāgas are viewed in the Amarāvatī reliefs. The reason for such abundant representations of nāgas in Sri Lanka is possibly the existence of nāga race in the region. These serpent worshippers were converted to Buddhism. Almost similar situation existed in the Lower Kṛṣṇa Valley which resulted in plenty nāga representations in the Amarāvatī art.

The sculptural relationship between Sri Lankan and Amarāvatī art is apparent in some iconoplastic fragments dating from 2^nd century–3^rd century CE. Chief among the carvings are a number of Buddha statues originally arranged around the base of Ruwanweli Dagaba. Among them, two of the dolomite images represent standing Buddha and the third represent Bodhisattva traditionally identified as Dutta Gamini. Both the colossal images of Buddha have left shoulder bare. Further the Buddha images display abhaya mudrā in one hand and the other is held up to the shoulders in front holding the folds of the robe. It appears that they are the Sinhalese adaptation of the bas-relief type of Buddha image sculpted at Amarāvatī. The treatment of the drapery of the sanghati follows the style of the Amarāvatī workshops^[8].

A standing Buddha about 6 feet in height has been discovered at the Mahalluppallama in the Anurādhapura District, Sri Lanka^[9]. There is no doubt that it was fashioned in the Amarāvatī region because it was carved in marble unknown in the Sri Lankan region.

Few portable marble reliefs depicting themes on Buddha’s life story is found in Sri Lanka. They display some stylistic features of the Amarāvatī idiom. Some of the notable fragments in this category may be stated. In this regard a slab depicting queen Māyā’s dream now in the Colombo National Museum, found in 1894 during the irrigation works in a paddy field about a mile from Anuradhapura is mentionworthy^[10]. Another small slab depicting the interpretation of Queen Māyā’s dream has been found in the same site. These two pieces executed in marble have their iconographic and stylistic counterparts in many sculptures of the Amarāvatī repertoire.

On the first panel one can identify Māyādevī reclining on a sofa to the left, dreaming of the birth of Buddha. There are female attendants and lokapālas. In comparison to this specimen mention may be made of a panel from Amarāvatī preserved in the British Museum where four events of Buddha’s birth is beautifully represented. Another relief sculpted on the āyaka panel at Site 9 of Nāgārjunākoṇḍa illustrates Buddha’s birth story. This piece is closest stylistically and thematically to the one from Anuradhapura.

In the panel depicting interpretation of Queen Māyā’s dream, the queen is shown seated on a high stool surrounded by female attendants^[11]. King Suddhodana is seated on the grand throne. Under his throne a dwarf like male figure is seen. Behind the throne are male and female attendants waving chowries. Panels from Amarāvatī and Nāgārjunākoṇḍa depicting interpretation of Maya Devi’s dream are numerous. Among them the most noteworthy depiction comparable to the slab from Anuradhapura is the one from Amarāvatī now in the Madras Government Museum^[12].

The limestone slab depicting the ‘Renunciation of Prince Siddhartha’ now in Girihandu vihāra in Ambalantota resembles Nāgārjunākoṇḍa -Amarāvatī type^[13]. The Bodhisattva is shown standing in the middle of the panel with a shaven head and wearing a monastic garb. His horse Kanthaka takes leave from his master by licking his right foot. Channa, his faithful attendant is shown in worshipping attitude. Two flying figures above Bodhisattva are carved.

The sculpture of a chakravarti monarch with seven treasure in the Abhayagiri dagaba shows striking resemblance to the physiognomy of Amarāvatī figures. However, the vivaciousness of the Amarāvatī figures are lacking in this sculpture.

A Sibi Jātaka depiction in Sri Lankan Art shows some similarity to the Amarāvatī School. Depiction of the Sibi Jātaka is found on an ayaka from Jetavana Dagaba^[14] (Pl 48a). Here king Sibi is shown cutting his own flesh from his leg with his sword. An attendant holding the scale to weigh the flesh of the king is also visible. Such scenes are common in the Andhra School. The panel from Amarāvatī exhibited in the British Museum is a good example of the theme. Iconographically both come quite close to each other.(Pl 48b)

A number of sculptures made of a type of limestone not found in Sri Lanka were discovered in November 1986 in the Bodhighara south of the Jetavana stūpa during the excavations conducted under the auspice of the Cultural Triangle project by Roland Silva (Director General) and Hema Ratnayake (Site Director). Among such artifacts mention may be made of a piece depicting Māyā devī being guided to the Sāl grove for the birth of Buddha (39cm x 51 cm)^[15]. Although the Amarāvatī School is deprived of similar scene, but the one preserved in the British Museum depicting nativity shows some stylistic similarity. Here Māyā Devī is sculpted in the middle of the panel. The rendering of the slender body, treatment of garments, hairdo and jewellery is very similar to the Singhalese specimen.

Two lintel pieces from Jetavana Bodhighara illustrates a vṛkṣa devatā standing in the tribhanga posture beside a pillar with attached makara finials^[16].(Pl 48c) This sort of depiction is also found in the reliefs from Nāgārjunākoṇḍa.(Pl 48d)

Another vriksa devata standing with her knee resting on a lion’s head while her eyes look down pensively. This relief reminds us of the Sālabhanjikā at the end of the beam found at Site 3 of Nāgārjunākoṇḍa showing ‘conversion of Nanda’. Many characteristics of this relief resemble the Jetavana lintel pieces. The similitude of the slender proportions of vṛkṣa devatā wearing diaphanous drapery below the waist leaving the bust bare.

The makara as seen on the Jetavana dagaba lintel deserve special mention. This limestone fragment of a cross bar with a lion issuing from the mouth of a makara finials^[17] has its counterpart in the Nāgārjunākoṇḍa specimen. Stylistically the lion from Jetavana dagaba cross bar and the one makara of ‘conversion of Nanda’ panel from Nāgārjunākoṇḍa are much similar.

In a moonstone from Polonnaruva, two pairs of affronted makara heads with lotus sprays and in between them a kirtimukha^[18] (Pl 49a) is reminiscent of similar depiction from Amarāvatī. In the Amarāvatī coping preserved in the British Museum, a decorated lotus rhizome springs from the jaws of affronted makara. (Pl 49b)

Another specimen from Jetavana Bodhighara illustrates a broken hand holding a banner attached to a cross like pole^[19]. It can be understood that once the hand was a part of a complete figure sculpted in the round. It bears striking resemblance to a drum slab from Amarāvatī housed in the British Museum. It illustrates two banner bearers on either side of the chhatra placed on the top of the stūpa. From a technical point of view the depiction of the banner is closest to the Jetavana Bodhighara.

A frieze from Mihintale illustrates an elephant headed gaṇa^[20]. Similar depiction is found at Amarāvatī where the elephant headed gana is a garland bearer^[21].

A pūrṇakalaśa from Anuradhapura has decorative similarity to a pūrṇakalaśa specimen from Amarāvatī preserved in the British Museum.^[22] In the Amarāvatī specimen the vase is in the shape of a reliquary filled with lotus blossoms, buds and other flowers with leaves and elaborately decorated with garlands, swags and fringed roundels. The urn has a high narrow neck with fluted cushion at the middle below a wide lipped mouth. The whole vase is set upon a stepped plinth, flanked by two large flower heads with leaves. A pūrṇakalaśa from Anurudhapura, Sri Lanka shows a reliquary shaped vase from which stylized flowers and leaves arise making elaborate decorative pattern. However, flowers are not found. Here too the vase is decorated with garlands, swags and fringed roundels. The urn has a high narrow neck and wide lipped mouth. Again, the urn is placed on a decorative plinth flanked with flower buds. A pūrṇakumbha from a stele near the south Vahalkada, eastern Dagaba from Anuradhapura is noteworthy^[23]. Same decoration is viewed in a pūrṇakalaśa from Amarāvatī preserved in the British Museum.

Further the inner stele at the southern end of Mirisweti dagaba display a relief which illustrate a grotesque dwarf carrying a large vase from which issues leaves, animal and quaint male figures (Pl 49c)^[24]. Similar depiction is seen in a relief from Amarāvatī. A relief preserved in the Madras Government Museum depicts a full vase supported by a dwarf yakṣa. (Pl 49d)

Motifs of rosette are noticed at Mihintale in Sri Lanka. Similar motif is viewed in Bhārhut, Sāñchī, Bodhgayā and Amarāvatī^[25]. However, the semi circular lotus design which belongs to the Amarāvatī School is quite similar to those found at Sri Lanka.

Some similarity is noticed in the architectural design in both the regions. In this regard it may suggested that the basic design of the monuments of Anurādhapura display large hemisphears placed on three tiered circular terraces, topped by a harmikā and ribbed spire. These features appear to have been directly inspired by the stūpas of Amarāvatī -Nāgārjunākoṇḍa. Though Andhra stūpas did not survive intact but the Amarāvatī relief clearly shows the presence of tall, slender pillars like those of Thuparama^[26]. A typical element of Singalese dagaba architecture is four alter frontispieces or wahalkadas situated at the cardinal points of the monument. The sculptural platforms bear the strongest resemblance to similar offset on the stūpas of Amarāvatī–Nāgārjunākoṇḍa^[27]. Again, the alters, chapels or screens of the Sri Lankan Dagabas was possibly derived from the Kṛṣṇa valley. An inscribed stone found in the pavement at the altar of the Northern Dagaba records the construction of four ayikas by the order of King Malu Tisa. The term “āyika” refers to the rectangular projections^[28] on which ayaka pillars or worshipful pillars are seen in the Andhra stūpas.

The architectural similarity was possibly due to the fact that the architectural elements were either imported from Andhra or executed by artists from Andhra. A 3^rd century C.E inscription of Nāgārjunākoṇḍa mentions the donation of Bodhighara (carved rail enclosure for a Bodhi tree) to a Sinhalese monastery, thus confirming the connection between Sri Lanka and Andhra^[29].

The Andhra influence can also be seen in the Sigiriya paintings of Sri Lanka. It may be pointed out that these fresco paintings are located in the great rock at Sigiriya (Lion Rock)^[30] that was the fortress of the parricide king Kassapa. (511-529 CE). The subject of the frieze of the wall painting is a parade of celestial females, apsaras or devatās, advancing singly or in pairs. The divinity of these sensuous figures is indicated by the clouds that veil them below the waist^[31]. Sigiriya paintings have close affinity to the Ajantā paintings and Amarāvatī art. It may be recalled that Ajanta bears striking similarity to the Amarāvatī idiom. Thus, it may be stated that since Amarāvatī was the source of inspiration for the Ajantā artists, Sigiriya painting were indirectly influenced by the Amarāvatī art.

The resemblance of these figures to the maidens of the Amarāvatī reliefs clearly suggests the interrelation. The narrow waisted female figures with ample round breast in the Sigiriya paintings (Pl 50a) is also visible in the Amarāvatī art.(Pl 50b) Moreover the bodies have a decided bend usually sideways.

The interchange of art forms between Amarāvatī and Sri Lanka is apparent from the above study. In fact the basic concepts of Buddhist art were introduced to Sri Lanka from India with the initiative of King Aśoka. In this cultural interaction Amarāvatī definitely played a significant role. However, with the lapse of time the influence from Andhra School faded and gave way to influences of later Indian Schools of art. It may be stated that though Amarāvatī influences on early art of Sri Lanka was prominent but they were modified and assimilated to the Sri Lankan art tradition. Thus although Sri Lankan artists received many inspirations from the Buddhist centres of Andhra Pradesh, early Sri Lankan art developed ingenuously assimilating the sentiments and aesthetic taste of its local population.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Paranavitana Senarat, 1967 (Reprint), Sinhalayo, Colombo, p 37.

[2]:

Dabral V.K, 2000, Buddhist Art in India and Sri Lanka, New Delhi, p 35.

[3]:

Paranavitana, 1958, ‘The Significance of Sinhalese Moonstones’, Paranavitana S (ed), Artibus Asiae, Vol XVII 1, New York, p 197.

[4]:

Senake Bandaranayake, 2009, (Reprint), Monastic Architecture The Vihāras of Anuradapurā, Hyderabad, p 270.

[5]:

Dabral V.K, 2000, Op.cit, pp 35-36.

[6]:

KulatungaT.G and Athula Amarasekera, 2002 ‘Abhayagiri Vihara’ The Cultural Triangle of Srilanka, Srilanka, p 57.

[7]:

Smither G. James, 1994, Architectural Remains Anuradhapura, Ceylon, Comprising the Dagabas and certain other ancient ruined structures, New Delhi, pl XIX, Fig 1.

[8]:

Rowland Benjamin, 1967, Op.cit, p 362.

[9]:

Paranavitana Senarat, 1967, Op.cit, p 22.

[10]:

Bopearachchi Osmund, 2008, ‘Sculptures of Amarāvatī, Tradition in Sri Lanka, Journal of Asiatic Society, Vol L No. 4, Calcutta, p 3.

[11]:

Ibid, p 4.

[12]:

Sivaramamurti c, 1956, Op.cit, Pl L, Fig 2.

[13]:

Bopearachchi Osmund, 2008, Op.cit, p 10.

[14]:

Bopearachchi Osmund, 2008, Op.cit, p 10.

[15]:

Ratnayake Hema, 2002 ‘Jetavana’, The Cultural Triangle of Srilanka, Srilanka, pp 82-83.

[16]:

Ibid, p 85.

[17]:

Bopearachchi Osmund, 2008, Op.cit, p 6.

[18]:

Coomaraswamy Ananda K, 1993, Op.cit, pl 62b.

[19]:

Bopearachchi Osmund, 2008, Op.cit, p 5.

[20]:

Sarma I.K, 1985, Buddhist Monumnets in China and South East Asia, Delhi, p 92.

[21]:

Coomaraswamy Ananda K, 1993, Op.cit, p 46.

[22]:

Agrawala Vasudeva S, 1965, Studies in Indian Art, Varanasi, p 10, Fig 1d.

[23]:

Coomaraswamy Ananda K, 1993, Op.cit, Fig 37 b.

[24]:

Smither G. James, 1994, Op.cit, Pl XIX, Fig 1

[25]:

Dabral V.K, 2000, Op.cit, p 20.

[26]:

Cummings Joe, 2001, Buddhist Stūpas in Asia, The Shape of Perfection, Australia, p 38.

[27]:

Rowland Benjamin, 1967, Op.cit, p 208.

[28]:

Vogel J. Ph, 1977, Buddhist Art in India, Ceylon and Java, Delhi, p 81.

[29]:

Cummings Joe, 2001, Op.cit, p 38.

[30]:

Bandaranayake Senake, 2002, ‘Sigiriya’, The Cultural Triangle of Srilanka, Op.cit, p 116.

[31]:

Rowland Benjamin, 1967, Op.cit, pp 370-371.