Rudra-Shiva concept (Study)

by Maumita Bhattacharjee | 2018 | 54,352 words

This page relates ‘Conclusion’ of the study on the Rudra-Shiva concept in the Vedic and Puranic literature, starting with the concept of God as contemplated by the Rishis (Vedic sages). These pages further deal with the aspects, legends, iconography and eulology of Rudra-Shiva as found in the Samhitas, Brahamanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads Sutras and Puranas. The final chapters deal with descriptions of his greatness, various incarnations and epithets.

Chapter 7 - Conclusion

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The present work entitled ‘Rudra-Śiva Concept in the Vedic and the Purāṇic Literature’ gives emphasis on various information regarding the concept of Rudra-Śiva reflected in the Vedic and Purāṇic literature. Rudra is a subordinate god in the Ṛgvedic period. But at the time of the Yajurveda and Atharvaveda he occupied an important position. In the Epic and Purāṇic literature Rudra took a new shape and he is identified with god Śiva. Thus, Rudra whose position Śiva usurps in the post-Vedic period is highly praised as a prominent god. Mahadev Chakravarti opines in his book entitled The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages that “In course of ages this minor deity has developed, as a result of fusion with a number of non-Aryan divinities, into the great and powerful god Rudra-Śiva, the third deity of the Hindu triad.”^[1]

According to A.A. Macdonell, “The deprecations of his wrath gave rise to the euphemistic epithet ‘auspicious’ (śiva), which became the regular name of Rudra’s historical successor in post-Vedic mythology. His beneficent and healing powers would be based partly on the fertilizing and purifying action of the thunderstorm and partly on the indirect action of sparing those whom he might slay.”^[2]

Aitareya-brāhmaṇa Keith observes that “Still less than Viṣṇu has Rudra greatness which in the later literature attends him. In the later Saṃhitās and in the Brāhmaṇas Rudra has become like Viṣṇu, and with him one of the two great gods of the Brāhmans.”^[3]

The work consists of seven chapters. The first chapter is the Introductory chapter. At the very beginning of this chapter, the concept of god as arising in the mind of the Vedic sages as well as the rise of the monotheistic idea in the mind of the Vedic Āryans have been discussed. Then a discussion on the prominence of Rudra-Śiva from Vedic to Purāṇic period takes place in this chapter.

The second chapter contains information regarding the various characteristic features of Rudra-Śiva in the Saṃhitā literature. In the Ṛgveda, three entire hymns are dedicated to Rudra and a part of a fourth and in one he is implored jointly with Soma. His destructive characters are very much clear in this Veda. He is depicted as the strongest of the strong (Ṛgveda, 2.33.3), the father of the entire world at the same time he is called auspicious (Ṛgveda, 6.49.10) and easily invoked (Ṛgveda, 2.33.5). His various contradictory characters have been revealed in the Ṛgveda.

His auspicious character and his supremacy are reflected very clearly in the Vājasaneyisaṃhitā. Specially in the Śatarudriya section of the Vājasaneyisaṃhitā, the gradual development of Rudra can be noticed. Rudra’s two contradictory characters, viz. terrible and auspicious are depicted here. His physician character is portrayed by an epithet Daivyo Bhiṣak (Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 16.5). He can crush all poisonous serpents and female demons by his power (Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 16.5). He is the lord of the universe (Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 16.18) and also called Bhagavān (Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 16.53). The Yajurvedic commentator Mahīdhara remarks that Rudra is the resident of Kailāsa mountain (Mahīdhara on Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 16.3). Here, a similarity has been found between the residence of Rudra and Śiva. In the later epic and Purāṇic literature, Śiva’s abode is also called Kailāsa (Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa, 2.25.9). Rudra is said to have braided hair (Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 16.18), blue-coloured neck (Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 16.7). His attire is made of skin (Vājasaneyi-saṃhitā, 3.61; 16.51). All these characteristic features have been found in Śiva in the later literature. In the Taittirīya Saṃhitā, Rudra is regarded as the lord of animals (Taittirīya-saṃhitā, 3.4.5.16). Agni is referred to like Rudra (Taittirīya-saṃhitā, 2.2.2.8). He is mentioned as the destroyer of people who do not salute to sacrifice (Taittirīya-saṃhitā, 3.2.4.12). There is a reference in the Taittirīya Saṃhitā where the supremacy of Rudra is reflected thus—... yacchaika eva rudro na dvitīyāya... (Taittirīya-saṃhitā, 1.8.6.10).

In the Atharvavedic period, Rudra occupies a higher platform. His all pervading nature is portrayed in this Veda. He is present everywhere, i.e. in the fire, water, herbs, plants etc. (Atharvaveda-saṃhitā, 7.87.1). According to Sāyaṇācārya, he creates the universe and all creatures (Sāyaṇa on Atharvaveda-saṃhitā, 7.87.1). The devotees invoke Rudra to increase the cattle in several numbers by curing from diseases (Atharvaveda-saṃhitā, 6.141.1). He saves his adorers from calamity (Atharvaveda-saṃhitā, 4.28.7). He is described as having some medicinal qualities and so that he is regarded as Jalāṣa Bheṣaja (Atharvaveda-saṃhitā, 2.27.6). He has so many unique epithets in this Veda. Thus, the greatness of Rudra is glorified in the Saṃhitā literature.

The third chapter deals with the various aspects and many legends regarding the birth of Rudra. In the Brāhmaṇa literature, Rudra is repeatedly addressed as the lord of the animals (Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa, 1.7.3.8; Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa, 3.11.4.2). He is regarded as Sviṣṭakṛt Agni (Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa, 3.9.11.44). Rudra is connected with some sacrificial rites in the Brāhmaṇa literature. The Gopatha Brāhmaṇa, describes an account where Rudra is excluded from the sacrifice by Prajāpati (Gopatha-brāhmaṇa, 2.1.2-3). Perhaps this story has been taken as a source of the Purāṇic legend where lord Śiva was kept out from Dakṣa sacrifice. In the Brāhmaṇa literature, Rudra got a name Mṛgavyādha after piercing Prajāpati for his evil deed (Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 13.9.33). In later literature, the Supreme god Śiva is known by this name (Vāyu-purāṇa, 2.35.172).

The fourth chapter depicts the supremacy over other deities in the Āraṇyaka, in the Upaniṣadic and in the Sūtra literature. In the Āraṇyaka literature, many names are attributed to Rudra-Śiva such as Hiraṇyabāhu, Hiraṇyavarṇa, Hiraṇyapati, Umāpati, Ambikāpati etc. He is called the lord (Adhipati) (Taittirīya-āraṇyaka, 4.11.5), greater than the universe (Taittirīya-āraṇyaka, 10.10.3; Mahā.U., 12.12). In later literature, Śiva is known by the these names. Northern quarter is of Rudra’s own quarter (Taittirīya-āraṇyaka, 5.8.9).

Rudra-Śiva occupied a superior position in the Upaniṣadic literature. Rudra is treated as Brahman in the Upaniṣads. Rudra is mentioned as one without the second. After creating all, he protects and merges them all at the end of the time (Śvetāśvatara-upaniṣad, 3.2). He is regarded as the lord of all (Śvetāśvatara-upaniṣad, 4.15), source of origin of all deities (Śvetāśvatara-upaniṣad, 4.12). Prāṇas of all beings are identified with Rudras (Chāndogya-upaniṣad, 3.16.3). Rudra manifests himself into three forms, i.e. Brahmā Viṣṇu and Maheśvara according to the need of the universe (Rudrahṛdaya-upaniṣad, 14). The nature is called as Māyā or illusion and Rudra is said to be Māyin or illusion-maker (Śvetāśvatara-upaniṣad, 4.10).

In the Sūtra literature, the designations Hara, Śarva, Śiva, Bhava, Mahādeva, Ugra, Paśupati, Śaṅkara are attributed to Rudra (Āśvalāyana-gṛhyasūtra, 4.10.14). The great god is treated as auspicious by the epithets Śiva, Śaṅkara etc. These very names are ascribed to lord Śiva in the Purāṇic literature also. According to Aitareya-brāhmaṇa Keith, “The specific account of him as the lord or the great god, shows a development of his character even within the period of the later Saṃhitās, for these epithets are not found in the earlier books of the Vājasaneyī Saṃhitā, but only in the later portion of that text.”^[4]

In the fifth chapter, discussion is made on Rudra-Śiva reflected in the Purāṇic literature. The Vedic Rudra took a new designation with his power and functions, viz. Śiva in the Purāṇic literature. When we go through a study on the origin and development of Śiva, we saw that Śiva emerged with all attributes of Rudra in the Vedic literature.

The sixth chapter deals with the significance of the various epithets of Rudra-Śiva. Here, in this chapter, a discussion is made on the similarities between the names of Vedic Rudra and Purāṇic Śiva. Such as Kapardin, Babhru, Tryambaka, Bhagavān, Śiva, Śaṅkara, Giriśa and many more.

The Liṅga Purāṇa also explains the term rudra as rudrāya rodayatīti rujjanmamaraṇādiduḥkhaṃ tadrāvayati dūrīkarotīti rudraḥ.^[5] Rudra is he who makes cry. Rut defines such types of pains which come from death, disease etc. One who drives away these types of pains is called Rudra. In the Purāṇic literature, it is stated that Rudra and Śiva are the same. There is no difference between Rudra and Śiva (Śiva-purāṇa,2.1.9.34).

Śiva is portrayed as the third person of Hindu triad. He manifests himself as Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Rudra at the time of creation, protection and destruction respectively. In the Liṅga Purāṇa, he is regarded as the destroyer, protector and creator at the same time (Liṅga-purāṇa, 2.14.3). The various epithets of Śiva, namely Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Īśāna, Parameṣṭhin, Devadeva, Bhagavān, Paśupati etc., reflect his supremacy and greatness among all. In the Purāṇas, it is stated that Śiva taking the form of Kālabhairava chopped the fifth face of Brahmā (Śiva-purāṇa, 3.8.2-53). The source of this Purāṇic legend has been found in the Brāhmaṇa literature where Rudra is described as the piercer of Prajāpati for his evil deed against his own daughter (Aitareya-brāhmaṇa, 3.33).

The seventh chapter consists of a concluding remark on the work. After reviewing all the chapters, it can be summed up that Rudra is a prominent god in the Vedic literature. He has so many similarities in the case of his characteristic features as well as some functional activities with the post-Vedic god Śiva. In this period, Rudra is frequently mentioned as an epithet of Śiva. In the Epic and Purāṇic literature, Rudra took a new shape and he is identified with god Śiva. Thus, Rudra whose position Śiva usurps in the post-Vedic period is highly praised as a prominent god. All the characteristic features of Śiva which are described in the Purāṇas reveal a clear imprint that Purāṇic Śiva is none other than Rudra who is eulogized in the Vedas.