1.A: Dāna in the Vedic Period

[Full title: The Concept of Dāna and its Understanding in the Indian Context (A): The Vedic Period]

Dāna was described and discussed in several ancient Indian texts such as the Vedas, Mahābhārata, Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra and others. Some of the prominent works on dāna are Dānakalpataru by Lakṣmidhara, Dānasāgara by Vallālasena, Dānakhaṇḍa by Hemādri, Dānasāra by Viṣvabhaṭṭa, Dānakriyākaumudi by Govindānanda, Dānamayūkha by Bhaṭṭa-nīlakaṇṭha, Dānaratnākara by Canḍeśvara and others.^[1] Besides, this was the subject of discussion in several Purāṇas. Moreover, the Epigraphical records provide great resources to understand the nature of dāna in early Indian context. If we examine the concept of dāna from the vedic time we observe some stages of it, such as the early vedic offerings (dāna and dakṣiṇā) out of one's surplus income, the gift freely given to a beggar or mendicant monk (observed in the Buddhist notion of dāna), the giving of ritualized obligatory gifts in a sense of moral duty (dāna, 3rd century CE onwards).

Dāna can also take the form of philanthropic public projects that empower many. Historical records and the ancient Indian literature and scriptures indicate that dāna is an ancient practice in Indian traditions, tracing back to vedic traditions. The Ṛgveda relates it to satya (truth) and the guilt one feels from not giving to those in need.

The Ṛgveda contains the earliest reference to the act of dāna. There are references to the gou (cow) symbolized as wealth being donated during the ṛgvedic period. Also other things such as horses, cattle, camels, chariots, treasure-chest, clothings, apparel, gold, etc. are mentioned as gift items.^[2] However, looking at the descriptions, it can be inferred that the amount of gift was exaggerated in the text. The idea was that in exchange for gifts, donors would earn the merit to enjoy heaven, win all battles, and rejoice with their brides forever. So the charitable purpose was highly religious because the benefit obtained from dāna was symbolic or supernatural during this time. Besides, it also secured the status of boththe donor, i.e. rājan (or yajamāna: the one who gets performed vedic sacrifices by someone else or priestly class) and the donee, i.e. ṛṣis or brāhmaṇas (who performed those sacrifices). Moreover, it was a means of economic exchange.^[3] Interestingly, land-property was not mentioned in the list, as lands were not characterized as an asset during this period. It can be said that a gift is something that is directly related to wealth.

Gifts of various kinds and donors have been highly eulogized in the Ṛgveda. There are some such sūktas, and mantras^[4] famous as dānastūti as the mantras are sung by the sages in praise of charity. These are the sūktas praising the kingsas well as the act of offering various things in the form of horses, cows, oxen, gold, etc. The number of sūktas associated with the Dānastūtis in the Ṛgveda is about 40.  For example, we may discuss the hymn 117 from 10th maṇḍala of the Ṛgveda in which the vedic seer chanted the mantras in honor of donations of money and grains.

Ṛgveda 1.125 and 126 gifts made by king Svanaya are praised. Seer of Ṛg. 1.15.8 wishes to become god’s instrument and distribute fortune to the poor and the needy. Ṛg. 1.15.9 adds that those who earn honestly and give generously be firmly established in the world and command respect in society and may they dedicate their work to god.

Again, Ṛg. 5.34.7 tells us, the liberal giver rises to divine radiance and attains godly powers. Similarly, in Ṛg. 5.34.7 we find that the Lord does not favor the dishonest rich who refuse to share their wealth with the needy and the poor. God snatches away the wealth of the greedy and bestows riches on the generous. In Ṛg. 8.5.37 reference is made to the gifts of ten thousand cows and of 100 camels by Kaśu Caidya. Ṛg. 10.34.13 advises us never to gamble, to be content and enjoy the fruits of honest labor, to take to agriculture and harvest the wealth thereof. Riches, thus acquired, alone give real happiness. This is the sacred law of the Divine Lord. Ṛg. 10.117.4 advises that one who is selfish and feeds himself alone, refusing to share his food with his starving brethren, is not fit to be a friend. And through Ṛg. 10.117.5 the seer conveys that the fortunate prosperous should fulfill the needs of the poor, his eye should see the outlying pathway of life, the wheels of the wealth-chariot are ever rolling and riches come today to one, tomorrow to another, and everyone should realize that one day he may need the help of others.

We may find some instances of dānastūti in the Atharvaveda as well. AV 24.5 says that one should earn by a hundred hands and disburse by a thousand. When someone is involved in benevolent work, their capacity to make multiplies, increasing a hundredfold andthe Lord surely blesses those who give in a good cause.

The terms dāna and dakṣiṇā were prevalent in the later vedic period where dāna was meant for a gift and dakṣiṇā was the sacrificial fees given to the priest.^[5] The expression was also used for gifts given with the right hand. Dakṣiṇā is mentioned in several texts as the wife of sacrifice (yajña-patnī). Thus, it was a kind of obligatory gift to the officiating priests as it was given after the performance of such sacrifices and the gift to be given or the amount to be paid was also predetermined. Śatapatha brāhmaṇa (Śukla Yajurveda), Taittirīya śākhā (Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda) and other vedic texts determine the gift to be given as sacrificial fees after the sacrifice.^[6] Dāna and dakṣiṇā had become more channelized and the position of brāhmaṇas in the society was well established in the later vedic period as they were referred to as connected with gods. And maybe the idea was that they should be satisfied through gifts. At that time, land and gold were given as gifts, but animals like cows were still prominent gift items then.

In Chāndogya Upaniṣad (4.1-2) there is a short story of a wise king called Janaśruti Pautrayana, who was renowned for his charity works, and the cart-driver Raikva who was indifferent to wealth. Raikva, the cart-driver, was at peace with himself as he cared not for wealth or any kind of fame, but the king was quite the opposite. Therefore, the king went to Raikva loaded with gifts and asked him which deity he needed to worship to attain happiness and inner peace. But he came to know Raikva was indifferent towards any kind of gift. And then the king begged him to teach him the way to true happiness. Raikva imparted to him the sacred teaching of the oneness of the universe with the Supreme Soul. Without this spiritual knowledge mere gift giving cannot bring peace.

Other types of charity include godāna (donation of a cow), bhūdāna (gift of land), vidyādāna or jñānadāna (sharing knowledge and teaching skills), auṣadhādāna (Charity of care for the sick and diseased), abhayadāna (giving freedom from fear) and annadāna (giving food to the poor, needy and all visitors).^[7] One of the most familiar forms of giving is “annadāna (sharing of food). It is part of one’s religious duty (dharma) until today. In the Indian subcontinent, an orthodox householder is expected to partake in food only after it has been offered to the deities and the ancestors and the dependent. The practice of this particular generosity is common to all sections of Indian society. It can be seen on religious and other important occasions people organize a special meal, or donate clothes and among others to the needy. To abdicate hospitality to the one who comes to your door is not accepted too. In this context, the Chāndogya Upaniṣad (4.3) alludes to two sages who heard a knock at the door while they were about to have their meal. They neglected the starving young student on their doorstep. He did not expect such treatment from such sages who were the worshippers of vāyu/prāṇa (the wind god, breath), the young man reminded the sages that prāṇa which pervades the whole universe also pervades the hungry mortals. In neglecting him, they dishonored the divine.

Scriptures of Brahmanism lay great emphasis on the act of donation. The Upaniṣads primarily containing philosophical concepts also talk about dāna. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (5.2.3) states that three characteristics of a good person are self-control (dama), love for all or empathy (dayā), and charity (dāna). Similarly, the Chāndogya Upaniṣad mentions tapas (monkhood), dāna (charity), ārjava (simplicity), ahiṃsā (non-injury to all sensitive beings) and satyavacana (truthfulness) as essential qualities of a virtuous life.^[8]

In Brahmanism dāna is an essential part of one’s dharma (religious duty). Every individual has a responsibility or dharma towards their family, extended family, friends, and society. Brahmanism emphasizes on charity or giving aimed at the public benefit. This could be a charity in the form of building a temple, educational institutions, irrigation canals, wells for drinking water, planting trees and the like. Apart from the materialistic gifts, Ṛgveda emphasizes on the charity of knowledge. Knowledge is something that is said to grow by sharing with others.

Atharvaveda says that man should earn as if he has a hundred hands but donate as if he has a thousand hands and donate one-tenth of his income to ācāryas, ṛṣis, the needy, the poor and the hungry thinking of god’s wealth. If rich people use their property for their own enjoyment they are not doing the right thing. Those who practise yajña may donate well. In yajña, the mantra part idaṃ na mama (this is not mine) is repeated many times. And the Vedas wisely warn that the riches rotate like the wheels of a chariot, now coming to one and then to another. Though during the vedic period dāna was more or less confined to the occasions of significant sacrifices patronized by kings, in the postvedic period, dāna became a much more common practice among the ordinary people. We share with the less fortunate. We care for the aged. We honor sages with gifts of food, money, and clothes. According to the age-old religious tradition even guests should be treated as god.

Brahmanical philosophical texts (Upaniṣads) point to the fact that real enjoyment and peace are to be isolated from wealth. We are not asked to give up wealth, but we have a sense of entitlement. If we unwillingly share our wealth, what we give will have no value. Charity is more than just giving; this involves voluntary sharing of their own resources with others.

It is said that the giver will always be benefited by the act of dāna. It is also said that charitable acts may reduce the feeling of enmity. Troubles are killed, and a stranger can become a friend through dāna. Above all charity must be done with a lot of love, warmth, and affection, expecting nothing in return. In giving charity, an individual must adhere to ethics and morality.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Vijay Nath, Dana: Gift System in Ancient India, A Socio-Economic Perspective, p. 9.

[2]:

Romila Thapar, Cultural Pasts, Essays in Early Indian History, Dāna and Dakṣiṇā as Forms of Exchange, p. 97.

[3]:

Vijay Nath, op. cit., p. 18.

[4]:

A Sūkta is the sum of some Mantras intended for the same deity. Sūkta is a devotional hymn in praise of the deity or others by mentioning its various attributes. The difference with Mantra is that it praises the gods as a whole through many mantras. So naturally it is important for a full description of the deity or the subject.

[5]:

Romila Thapar, op. cit., p. 95.

[6]:

Ancient texts like Śatapathabrāhmaṇa defines sacrifice as an act of abandonment of something one holds of value, such as oblations offered to god and fees or gifts (Dakṣiṇā) offered after the yajña. For Dakṣiṇā, the text recommends giving cows, horses or gold, garments and others. [Richard K. Payne and Michael Witzel (eds.), Homa Variations: The Study of Ritual Change Across the Longue Durée by Tadeusz Skorupski, pp. 78–81]. Similar recommendations are repeated in other texts like Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda, Taittirīya Śākhā 2.10 [Madan Gopal and K.S. Gautam (eds.), India through the ages, p. 79].

[7]:

Abbe Dubois and Henry Beauchamp, Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, pp. 223, 483495.

[8]:

P.V. Kane, History of Dharmaśāstra, vol. II, part I, p. 5.