Conclusion

The concepts of sin and impurity are seen as an integral part of all religious beliefs in the world. The expiatory rites are performed for the removal of sins and impurities existing in individual and social life of the people. The divergent forms of expiations were present and still existing in principle and practice in almost all regions of the world. In Sanskrit, the notions of sin and expiation are seen germinating in the Vedic Saṃhitās and later got established as doctrines through the Brāhmaṇas, Dharmaśātras and the like. In the Purāṇic period, the composers tried to spread the concept of expiation widely among the people. In the Vedic period seers offered various sacrifices, chanting of Mantras, offering of Havis to Agni, Varuṇa, Indra, Soma and Aśviṃs for the removal of individual and social sins. But in the period of Brāhamaṇas, the practice of expiation was following as a remedy for the ritualistic errors that crept into Yajñas. Here, expiation is ordained for the sins or desecration in connection with Yajñas rather than for a social or personal sin.

It can be perceived that the authors of Dharmaśāstras ordain expiation as well as punishment for different kinds of crimes. During the period of Dharmasūtras expiations consisted of different forms of punishments also. The Brāhmaṇa texts and Tantric manuals in any way did not relate expiation with punishment, but only to rituals. Yet Mahānirvāṇatantra is an exception. Expiation in connection with rituals are almost very limited or even null in the Dharmasūtras.

An undivided connection between various diseases and expiations can be seen in Dharmaśāstras. According to them, diseases are the result of sinful actions. This assumption has led to the belief that expiation is essential for curing of diseases. In course of time this belief gave firmness of expiatory rites over the logical ideas of medical treatment. The different Dharmaśātra texts hold many fundamental variations while explaining the nature and number of sins and their expiations. In the age of Smṛtis, the expiatory rites are related to Karma and Punarjanma theory. By this, the priesthood believed and propagated the assumption that Mokṣa is not possible in the absence of expiation. This gave rise to a situation which demanded the existence of expiation in one form or another.

With the entry of Purāṇas, the concepts of expiations received novel dimensions. In Purāṇas, it can be witnessed a conglomeration of expiatory rites pertaining to Vedic and Tantric traditions. An elaboration of the expiatory rites mentioned in the Dharmasūtras and Smṛtis is reflected in the Purāṇas. Moreover, the Purāṇic narrations gave wide popularity of expiations. They play a major role in the popularization of expiatory rites practiced in the pilgrim centers. The pilgrim expiation acquired equal status with the Yajñas and once it even outdid the significance of the latter. The expiatory ceremonies performed in pilgrim centers like in the form of donation and distribution of gifts became popular and important. Even if the wealth in each person’s hand was so little, these practices resulted in accumulating this wealth into the hands of priestly classes and the authorities of religious institutions through the expiatory rites. The institutionalization of Bhakti and the concept of Kaliyuga accentuated the belief in expiatory rites and made them more popular and prevalent.

The majority of Āgamas do not give a concrete definition to the concept of expiation. Ajitāgama, Rauravāgama and Prāyaścittasamu-ccaya are exceptions. The Āgamas generally illustrate the causes of impurities and their solutions. The similarity between the definitions of expiations seen in the Dharmaśāstras and in the Āgamic works like Ajitāgama, Rauravāgama and Prāyaścittasamuccaya, is quite noteworthy. This gives evidence to the influence of the Dharmaśāstras on Tantric literature. Ātmārthaprāyaścitta and Parārthaprāyaścitta are the two main varieties of expiation described in the Āgamas. The ancient Āgamas had given more significance to Ātmārthaprāyaścitta. The expiatory rites in connection with temple rituals are not mentioned in the earlier Āgamas like Niśvāsatattvasaṃhitā. These works give importance to the expiations related to the Sādhakas’ personal practices (Ātmārthaprāyaścitta). Moreover they have invincible connections with the concepts of Dīkṣa and Mokṣa. The earlier Śaiva-Āgamas ordains expiation as solution for sins and desecrations that impede Mokṣa. They are performed as Mantras, Snānas and Homas with ritualistic accompaniments. The influence of Karma and Punarjanma concepts can be strongly noticed in the expiatory rites of the Śaiva-Āgamas. The expiation, salvation and initiation are interrelated and they occupy special place in Śaiva-Tantra. The influence of caste system is visible in the expiations of the Śaivāgamas in different levels. Brahma-yāmalatantra considers that the birth of a person as an untouchable, outcaste and Caṇḍāḷas or non-Brahmin is a sin and to be atoned. In this manner the entry of outcastes and Caṇḍāḷas into the temple is considered as desecrating sin by the Tantric texts. In order to make expiation compulsory, the Āgamas create fear in the name of hell, destruction and various impediments. The Āgama texts believe that the absence of expiation shall result in disease, destruction and impediments to attain salvation. The Influence of the concepts of serious sins seen in the Dharmaśāstras and Purāṇas find a sturdy space in the Śaivāgamas. Prāyaścittasamuccaya of Trilocana is a turning point in this regard. In the Kaula-Tantras and in similar texts, the use of liquor, meat and sexual practices are seen observed. The later works including Śaiva-Tantras consider the use of these and the entry of a menstruating woman as desecrating, and so these acts are to be subjected to expiation. It is to be noted that expiations in early Pāñcarātrāgamas are seen related to the Mantradīkṣā. But later this custom has changed. The transformation towards temple-centered expiations can be seen in Pāñcarātrāgamas. The special act of Pavitrārohaṇa prescribed by Pāñcarātrāgamas, is also to be noted, as a solution for the flaws committed during the worships of previous year. This ritual is not seen followed even in the Viṣṇu temples of Kerala.

While comparing with the other parts of India, many unique features can be seen in the Tantric practices of Kerala. In the Pre- Tantrasamuccaya period, the Tantric texts, which also give emphasis on philosophical and mythical aspects, mostly deal with the installation and temple rituals of single deities. The Tantric texts of this period like Prayogamañjarī, Śaivāgamanibandhana and Īśānaśivagurudeva-paddhati described only Śaiva expiations. Similarly Viṣṇusaṃhitā, having general traits of Pāñcarātrāgamas, describes only Vaiṣṇava expiations. Among these works, Īśānaśivagurudevapaddhati ordains expiations in connection with Dīkṣa and Mokṣa also. With the emergence of Tantrasamuccaya, Kerala Tantric expiation completely became temple-centered. A synthesis of Śaiva, Vaiṣṇava and Śākta expiations can be seen in this period. After the period of Tantrasamuccya, the number of expiatory rites seems increased. The influence of astrology on the concept and practice of expiation can be obviously seen in Post-Tantrasamuccya scenario.

A critical study of the concept and the evolution of expiatory rites undoubtedly show that it is a tool for controlling the society. In the Indian context, the priestly class used the concept of sin and expiatory rites for acquiring money and other properties. In course of time, the concept of expiation became an important means for exploitation. By describing the ill-effects of undoing rites and the benefits of doing rites, the priestly class frightened or persuaded the masses, as well as, the rulers. It can be seen that the Brahmins, who encouraged and praised Yajñas as virtuous deeds, were actually aiming at their own physical prosperity. The arguments that the Brahmins’ life is a virtuous one and that they are the gods of earth, strengthened the theories of Karma and Punarjanma. The whole of Sanskrit literature reveals the existence of a social system based on different dimensions of the concept of sin and expiations. The expiatory rites, which closely related to the Cāturvarṇya system (Four-fold cast system), played a major role in reinforcing Brahmin-hood and priesthood. Because it was in the hands of these Brahmins and priests the major portion of the land, cows, money and grains accumulated in the form of Dāna and Dakṣinā given as part of the expiations. This resulted in social and cultural inequality in the society. The authors of Dharmasūtras and Smṛtis emphatically pronounce that Brahmin-hood deserves to receive anything due as expiation.

In the socio-cultural aspects, Kerala maintains some notable differences from other Indian territories. Several elements of Purāṇic and Smārta traditions are evidently seen in Keralite Tantric ritual manuals. Expiatory rites illustrated in Tantric literature of Kerala reflect the rigid caste system and the Brahmanical hegemony prevalent in the society. The Tantric authorities strictly controlled the entering of Caṇḍāḷa, lunatic persons, Vrātyas, Patitas, Pāśupatas, Kāpālikas, Ārhatas, Śākyas and other outcastes into the temples. This strong restriction of outcastes is a perceptible result of untouchability and inapproachability. The study of the expiatory rites of Kerala also reveals that the rights of wealth and valuable properties have got centralized in Brahmanical priesthood. The concept and practice of Dakṣiṇā is an important example. The concept of Dakṣiṇā and Dāna are closely related to landlordism and casteism. The Tantric treatises pronounce that Brahmin-hood deserves to receive anything due as fees for performing expiations. Devadravya and Caṇḍadravya concepts are the diplomatic ideas of Brahmanical priesthood for collecting and protecting of money and land in the name of Devasvam and Brahmasvam. The political ideas of orthodox Brahmanism, Bhakti movements, codes of conduct recorded in the temple documents like Kaccaṃs have influenced the composing of expiatory rites in Keralite Tantric literature. Thus the number of expiatory rites seems increased in later periods. This resulted in social, economic and cultural inequality in the society. The Rāmeśvarattu Kovil inscription, Matilakam records of Sri Padmanābhasvāmi temple, Tiruvalla Paṟampūrillam records, Ettumanur Granthavari and Tiruppuliyūr records have clearly shown that the expiatory rituals were regularly performed in early medieval Kerala temples. In short it may be concluded that the descriptions of expiations seen in the Tantric treatises of Kerala, attempted only to maintain the unequal social setup prevalent here. The function of the same can be visible in different new forms and features in the contemporary society also.

Some important observations and major findings of the present study are given below:

-) The expiatory rites are predominantly performed for the removing of errors, ritual mistakes, impurities, bad obstacles in the ritualistic practices and for the cleansing of sinful activities.

-) The concept of expiation is related to the theory of Karma and Punarjanma.

-) A gradual increase in the number of expiatory rites is seen in the history of literature. Simple rites became complex in later periods.

-) The concept of ritual mistakes and its expiation seen commenced from the time of Brāhmaṇa texts.

-) The expiatory rite is not the innermost idea of Tantra in the primitive stage. Also in the initial stage it is related to the concept of salvation.

-) The Śākta system of Tantras rarely discusses the expiation.

-) Before the period of Tantrasamuccaya, the Tantric expiations in Kerala gave prominence to expiations for one’s own sake. But it lost its significance from the period of Tantrasamuccaya.

-) The study of expiatory rites of Keralite Tantra indicate that there were some Śaiva-Vaiṣṇava differences in the early period.

-) In the Post-Tantrasamuccaya scenario, the influence of astrology is evidently perceptible in Tantric expiatory rites of Kerala.

-) The ritual known as Devapraśna cannot be seen anywhere in the temples outside Kerala which follow Āgama rites. Even though the Tantric texts of Kerala also do not suggest seeking the help of an astrologer to determine the expiation, now a days the practice of Devapraśna is profusely found in temples.

-) Influence of Purāṇas can be seen in the Tantric expiatory rites along with that of the Āgamas. The Tīrtha concept has strongly influenced the expiatory rites. It can be perceived that the expiation centered on temples and pilgrim centers were expanded by the Purāṇas.

-) The early Tantric scriptures attest that women have participated in the various Tantric rituals. Later the priestly class prohibited the participation of women in Tantric rituals considering her menstrual impurity. Gradually the concept of menstrual impurity is considered as serious and expiations were suggested for the same. Thus the priestly class tried to keep woman away from the main stream of rituals.

-) The concepts of sin and expiation have in many ways reinforced the authority of Brahmin priesthood.

-) The Kerala Tantric ritual manuals consider the temple entry of outcastes, untouchables and lower castes as desecration. The concept and practice of expiation is a visible result of untouchability and inapproachability and it also encouraged the caste system existed in the Kerala society.

-) A critical study of the concept and the evolution of expiatory rites undoubtedly shows that the notion of expiation has functioned as a tool for controlling the social and economic systems.

-) The Keralite Tantric texts consider the Bauddhas and Jainas as groups of desecrators who are to be kept away from Tantric and temple rituals. It shows the discontentment and intolerance of Brahmanism towards the Budhhism and Jainism.

-) The influence of Dharmaśāstras can be perceived in the various segments of Keralite Tantric expiations.

-) The priesthood established its superiority by persuading even the rulers of the land for performing the expiatory rites. The donation of land is seen related to the expiation in the Kerala Tantric ritual manuals.

-) The priesthood accumulated land and other properties in the form of Dāna and Dakṣiṇa through the means of expiation.

-) The concept of Devasvam and Brahmasvam brought a ban to the lower class from using land and other properties. The concept of Nirmālya in Īśānaśivagurudevapaddhati and Śaivāgamanibandhana assesses the entry of others in the properties of Devasvam and Brahmasvam and using them as sinful acts.

-) It is known from the temple records that the Brāhmaṇas occupied the Devasvam property in the name of Brahmasvam.

-) Vaḻipāṭu (the offerings done in the temples by the public) is the extended form of expiation performed for the removal of sin and for gaining prosperity.

Several topics discussed here require further in-depth study with the help of clear perspectives and tools of sociology, anthropology and cultural history. The study of expiatory rites using more historical records and temple inscriptions will shed further light for a better understanding of cultural history of Kerala.