Reviews

The Poetic Approach to Language, with special reference to the History of English: By V. K. Gokak. Principal, Rajaram College, Kolhapur. (Oxford University Press, Pp. 247. Rs. 15)

Grown out of the Wilson Philological Lectures, delivered in 1944 at the Bombay University on the poetic approach to language and the linguistic approach to poetry, the book deals with the borderline between linguistics on the one hand and literary history on the other. The present volume is based on the first three of the lectures and concerns itself with the poetic approach to language and with language as poetry; in other words, with the contribution of the poetic mind to the evolution and evaluation of language. Together with the companion volume which we are promised, based on the remaining lectures of the series, revealing the scholar’s approach to poetry, and dealing with poetry as language and setting forth the linguistic contribution to the study of poetry, the book constitutes a valuable contribution of a rare variety by an Indian scholar to the corpus of English literary criticism.

The book is divided into three parts. The first, dealing with the poetry of language, traces the poetic elements of music, feeling intuition and imagination in words, and illustrates how these poetic elements contribute to the growth and enrichment of the language. The second part deals with the different kinds of language and the distinctive poetic elements in them and their value for poetic purposes, the different kinds dealt with including primitive language, the language of magic and religion, the language of cultural adoption, language of play, transplanted language, dialects, slang, spoken and written standards etc. The third part is entitled ‘the language of poetry’, and discusses the poetic value of proper names, technical terms, archaisms, poetic diction, selections from the real language of men, poetic words and quintessential words. The two chapters last mentioned, on poetic words and quintessential words, form the most interesting part of the book even to the general reader; and to the specialist student of literature and literary criticism they should prove very instructive and valuable, giving, as they do, the history of ‘castaway’, ‘isolation’ and the general changes and enrichment, in the hands of great poets, of the content and significance of the quintessential Words like ‘melancholy’, ‘indolence’, ‘duty’, ‘conscience’. The author succeeds admirably in leading even the lay reader to the realisation that, when we approach language poetically, language itself is seen to be poetry, and the evolution of a language and its growth and enrichment a continuous poetic achievement of the people as a whole through generations. In the hands of the poets, words are charged with the maximum of meaning and attain universality and classicality of utterance, forming the flesh and blood of poetry. This is the perfection that language attains as mantra, or inspired utterance, a harmony of music and meaning, of image and emotion, of inspiration and intuitive perception.

It is to be hoped the book will serve to realise the double objective set forth by the author in his Introduction: (1) to bring home to our University authorities the desirability of making our Honours students of English Literature learn a little more of the history of the language which they do know and a little less of the comparative philology of the languages they do not know, and (2) to help to stimulate similar enquiry into the history and poetry of words of our Indian languages. The objectives are sensible and patriotic, and deserving of the attention of all thinking men and leaders in the country. The publication is highly creditable to an Indian scholar of the English language and eminently calculated to secure his objectives.

Freedom and Culture: By John Dewey (Bhavan’s Book University–Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay. Pages 148. Price 1-12-0)

The object of the Book University is to publish books ancient and modern in a uniform size and at a low price, with a view to make the best literature, including the classics of India and the world, available to the common man. The present publication is perhaps the first of the series to redeem the promise to provide the best literature (modern) of the world to Indians.

The subject is Freedom which has passed into the realm of concepts of absolute value like Truth and Beauty, though there is considerable vagueness and confusion in the modern world regarding its connotation, and the political, economic and social institutions calculated to secure and preserve it. Together with ‘Democracy’ it is now the professed objective of powerful conflicting ideologies, between which the nations of the world feel obviously impelled to choose. This dispassionate scientific enquiry into the subject, by a trained philosopher and seasoned humanist of the type of Professor Dewey, should prove of immense interest to the citizens of a new State like the Indian Union, which has recently embarked on a career of Independence–with its declared faith in freedom and democracy–for the realisation of its ultimate objective of a Welfare State and the fulfillment of the destiny of its people.

The philosopher approaches the problem of freedom in the context of culture, and examines the mutual bearings of the two. Culture itself is defined by him as a state of interaction of many factors, the chief of which are law and politics, industry and commerce, science and technology, the arts of expression and communication, morals and values, and lastly the social philosophy of the people. He lays it down as a fundamental postulate that the isolation of anyone of these factors, no matter how strong its workings at a given time, is fatal to understanding and to intelligent action. His interest is in the reciprocal connections human nature and culture bear to one another. The prejudice against, and the fear of the threat of, the Communist ideology, with its insistence on the economic factor–treating the system of production as the determining factor of all the other factors of culture–is fairly obvious on the part of even this eminent American philosopher. But he endeavours to preserve a scientific, dispassionate attitude and manages to keep clear of partisan criticism, as he concerns himself mainly with the threat to freedom and democracy from within. He views the problem mainly against American ground, the history of the growth of democratic ideas and institutions in America, and the necessary safeguards for preserving and extending the true freedom of the individual within the framework of its democratic Constitution and society.

Particularly instructive to us is his diagnosis of the problem in America that “the very agencies that a century and a half were looked upon as sure to advance the cause of freedom are those which now make it possible to create pseudo public opinion and undermine democracy from within.” He arrives at the conclusion that “the future of democracy is allied with the spread of the scientific attitude. It is the sole guarantee against wholesale misleading by propaganda–a danger to which democratic institutions are exposed by their very nature and basis in free speech, free press, and free assembly.” From this it follows that “the problem of the common schools in a democracy has reached only its first stage when they are provided for everybody. Until what shall be taught and how it is taught is settled upon the basis of formation of the scientific attitude, the so-called educational work of schools is a dangerously hit-or-miss affair as far as democracy is concerned.” Again and again he emphasises: “In the present state of affairs, the conflict as it concerns democracy is within the institutions and attitudes of democracy. It can be won only by extending the application of the democratic method, methods of consultation, persuasion, negotiation, communication, co-operative intelligence, in the task of making our own politics, industry, education, our culture generally, a servant and an enduring manifestation of democracy.” “Democracy can be saved ultimately and immediately only by the slow day by day adoption and contagious diffusion in every phase of our common life, of methods that are identical with the end to be reached, and demonstrating in the conduct of the life of the people, the efficacy of plural, partial experimental methods in securing and maintaining an ever increasing release of the powers of human nature, in the service of freedom which is co-operative and a co-operation which is voluntary.” Equally valuable in our present stage of transition, from a rural to a mainly urban civilisation, should prove his sane advice: “Evils which are uncritically and indiscriminately laid at the door of industrialism and democracy, might with greater intelligence be referred to the dislocation and unsettlement of the local community; vital and thorough attachments are bred only in the intimacy of an intercourse which is of necessity restricted in range. It is possible to restore the reality of the less communal organisations and to penetrate and saturate their members with a sense of local community life. Democracy must begin at home, literally in the family, in the local occupational group, and its hope is the neighbourly unity.

Precious advice of this kind is scattered in abundance in the pages of this small volume, but its chief merit is the point of view and the method of approach to the social problem, combining the humanism of the philosopher, the logical and dispassionate analysis of the scientist and the practical realistic attitude and interests of the educationist. A book of outstanding significance to every student of the social problem and public life in the country.

M. S. K.

Shakti and Shakta By Sir John Woodroffe (Ganesh & Co., (Madras) Ltd., Madras, 17. Pp. 735. Price Rs. 25)

The eternal bliss and happiness which man ever seeks after is attained by the realisation of that Supreme God that is Sat, Chit and Ananda, i. e., “Being-Consciousness-Bliss”, and ‘upasana’ or incessant meditation upon that Supreme God is said to be the infallible and most efficacious means for that end. This ‘upasana’ is five-fold, according as the deity meditated upon is the Sun, Vishnu, Ganapati, Sakti, or Siva, who in truth are not distinct divinities but only different aspects of that one Supreme God that is attribute-less or ‘Nirguna’. The theory and practice of this spiritual science, ‘upasana,’ is found described in detail in what are known as ‘Agamas’ or ‘Tantras’, which are classified mainly into three varieties: Vaishnava, Sakta, and Saiva.

The book under review, which is a collection of essays and addresses by Sir John Woodroffe, treats of the Sakta Tantra Sastra as it obtains chiefly in Bengal. It is divided into four sections dealing with the nature and validity of the Tantras in general and the Sakta Tantra in particular, Sakta Doctrine, Sakta Ritual, and Kundalini Sakti respectively.

Sakta philosophy is often either abused as nothing but ‘religious feminism run mad’, or misunderstood as merely ‘the doctrine of Force’; but Sir John Woodroffe, a stout champion and an able interpreter of the Sakta philosophy, in his introductory section silences the critics, and proves with authority and unassailable arguments that the Tantric philosophy is not at all lascivious in character, has nothing of feminism in it, and that Sakti is not at all identical with material ‘Force’. Tantras which are not antagonistic to Vedas in their essence, as some wrongly take them to be, are practical guides to spiritual aspirants in their Sadhana; and the Sakta Tantras, whose supremacy consists in their Monism, their concept of the Motherhood of God, the provision in them for Sudras and women, and lastly the Sadhana skillfully designed to realise their teachings, are nothing but Sadhana Sastra of Advaita Vada.

In the second section, the doctrine of Saktadvaita, with all its subtleties and implications is presented to us on a scientific basis. A comparative study of the philosophies of Samkhya, Saivadvaita and Saktadvaita is attempted, and the subtle differences that exist between the Bengal Sakta Sampradaya and Sankara’s Advaita are clearly explained. The essence and excellence of the Sakta Siddhanta consists in the fact that “in the Sakta method it is not by denial of the world, but by and through the world, when known as the Mother, that Liberation is attained World-enjoyment is made the means and instrument of Liberation.

The third section is devoted to a scientific and psychological exposition of the Hindu ritual. The significance of Srichakra is explained briefly. It is established that, to a discriminating Sadhaka, every part of the ritual is significant and conducive to the purification of mind and body, and that this ritual has nothing to do with idolatry. The significance and the esoteric meaning of the much abused ‘Pancha Makaras’ is ably expounded by the author. The fourth and the last section deals with the Kundalini Sakti and the Yoga thereof.

While reading the book, one can see in Sir JohnWoodroffe a teacher who, with patience, interprets to us, critically, dispassionately and sympathetically, the secret doctrines of Saktism in a lucid manner, calling to his aid, wherever necessary, the modern theories of Physics and Psychology. The second and third sections deserve to be diligently read, carefully remembered and properly digested, by every person interested in Indian culture, whether he be initiated or not in this cult.

B. KUTUMBA RAO

TELUGU

Sakuntala Vimarsanam: By Sri Nanduri Bangarayya, Advocate, Rajahmundry. (Pages 187. Price Rs. 5)

Kalidasa, the immortal poet of India, has won laurels for his poetic muse and flawless art, from Western and Eastern aestheticians alike, and his ‘Abhijnana Sakuntalam’ musthave been written in ripe old age, “when spiritual discovery was made without an effort, when he did not seek for truth, but rather was sought for by truth and found, and when beauty itself haunted, startled and waylaid him.” Critical appreciation ofthis work, though plentiful in English and otherlanguages, are a long-felt desideratum in Telugu. This book is therefore a valuable addition to high-class literary criticism. Written in readable and chaste Telugu, it consistsof eleven essays dealing with the evolution of Kalidasa’s mind and art as evident from his works, his skill in the construction of the plot, delineation of aesthetic sentiment, portrayal of characters, propriety oflanguage and metre, and the splendour of the ground suggested for the action in his dramas. In the eleventh chapter we find a comparison of the ‘Sakuntalopakhyanam’ in the ‘Mahabharata’ with the story of the drama. At the end, the author gives Telugu translations of important Samskrit passages quoted in the text.

It is evident that the author spared no pains tobring home to the reader thegreatness ofthis drama in all its aspects, and, throughout his dissertation, we see high critical acumen coupled with dispassionate and original intellectual power.

Though nothing but praise is due to the, author, some of his statements are of a controversial nature, and hence need careful study, investigation and consideration. To give illustrations:

1. The learned author appears to be a bit uncharitable when he characterises as ‘anuchita’ or improper the question–api nama nirvighnamanoradho divasamketo midhunasya? –put by Iravati to Agnimitra.

2. In the second chapter the author alleges that the ancient Indian alamkarikas did not lay stress on the importance of constructive skill in poetry or sravyakavya as they did as regards drama or drisyakavya, but we see Ananda Vardhana in his ‘Dhvanyaloka’ laying emphasis on this art of construction in all kinds of Kavyas whether Drisya or Sravya, the genera name for which is ‘Prabandha’.

3. ‘Karuna’ or Pathos is the most delicate ‘Rasa’ and hence more delighting than any other ‘Rasa’. The fourth Act in the ‘Sakuntalam’ has ‘karuna’ for its main sentiment and hence is acclaimed as the best of the different Acts of the drama by Indian critics; but our author, agreeing with some modern critics, assigns this place of honour to the seventh Act wherein ‘adbhuta’ or wonder finds full play.

4. Our author propounds a peculiar theory of ‘Rasa’. According to him; ‘Rasa’ and ‘Kavyananda’ are different, the former being the cause and the latter the effect. The readers should study the ‘Rasa’ theory explained by Abhinavagupta and Jagannatha Pandita in their works, before they can come to a conclusion regarding the tenability of this statement.

5. The author of this critical work prefers realism to idealism and typification in characterisation and description as well, and according to his view, Kalidasa, whose characters are ideal, falls short of comparison either with Vyasa or Valmiki whose works teem with realistic characters. Here we must bear in mind (I) that a gulf of difference exists between the epics on the one hand and Kavya literature on the other. (2) Indian dramatists did recognise the value of holding the mirror up to nature, but the genius did not stop short of achieving a higher ideal, rising above the limitations of this physical world. Perfection of the human soul and realisation of Godliness is their ideal, and this we find suggested in all the best Samskrit Nataka type of dramas, in heroes and heroines, relegating realism to other characters and lesser types of drama. It is for critics to decide whether Indian artists erred in preferring idealism to realism.

6. The critic, in his fastidiousness, moves, as it were, a ‘no-confidence’ motion against Kalidasa regarding some of his descriptions. Forinstance,

“ksaumam kenachidindupandu taruna mangalyam aviskrtam,
Nisthyutascharanopabhoga sulabho laksarasah kena chit”...

This description, he says, lacks in realism, and is unbelievable. Here we must pause and consider the following points. Realism and unrealism are relative terms; what is unreal toan ordinary man becomes a reality to a seer. Similarly with nations. It all depends upon the cultural and spiritual heritage of a nation. Indians believed and still believe in the efficacy of penance, and Kanva’s miraculous powers are not at all unbelievable to an Indian mind. Secondly, we must consider Kalidasa’s philosophy of Nature in particular, and Indian philosophy in general, before we come to conclusions like these. Further one wonders why this critic, who accepts and believes in some supernatural elements in the same play, should think of objecting to this and some others.

7. The author questions the basis of the classification of heroes in Samskrit dramas as Udatta, Uddhata, Lalita and Santa. The classification is made on the basis of the four purusharthas, Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha and hence it is significant.

These, after all, are side issues and matters of individual likes and dislikes, and in no way detract from the merits of the book, every page of which deserves close study. One wishes the author had given Telugu translations of all the Samskrit passages, for the sake of non-Samskrit knowing readers. A comparative study of the characters of Priyamvada and Anasuya, Sarngarava and Saradvata, a Time analysis of the play, and a view of the society depicted in the drama, are some of the topics left out by the author, which, it is to be hoped, will be included in the next edition of the book.

We commend to all Andhras this admirable work which should find a place on the bookshelf of every student and scholar alike.

Girvana Rupakamu: By Krittivasa Tirthulu. (Andhra Saraswata Parishat, Hyderabad, Deccan. Pp. 146. Price 1-8-o.)

The origin, nature, development and classification of Samskrit drama form the subject matter of this work. All the information available, up-to-date, is given here in a brief compass. The main and sub-varieties of Rupaka, (a general name for drama) are described. A brief historical and literary account of about 33 Samskrit dramatists is also given at the end. A separate chapter is devoted to a description of ancient Indian theatre according to Bharata’s Natya Sastra, though one feels the need for more elaborate explanation of the details of it with the aid of diagrams, as well as for illustrative passages from the well-known Samskrit dramatists to facilitate clear understanding of the ‘Sandhyangas’ dealt with in this book.

The value and attraction of the book would have been considerably enhanced by additional chapters on a comparative study of the dramatic theories developed in India and England, and the nature of the Samskrit drama compared with ancient Greek drama and modern English drama. Even as it is, the book serves admirably as a reference book for students of the principles of Samskrit dramaturgy and desrves to be commended to all lovers of Samskrit.

B. KUTUMBA RAO