Social and Cultural condition of the Brahmanical age

[Full title: A brief description of the social and cultural condition of the Brahmanical age]

It was not the aim of the Brāhmaṇas to draw a pen picture of the contemporary society. But the Brāhmaṇas contain various explanations on many topics from which we get an idea of the social and cultural conditions of the people in the age of the Brāhmaṇs.

I) Four Varṇa

The four social classes were there in the age of the Brāhmaṇas. The Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa states that there are four varnas viz. Brāhmaṇ, Rājanya, Vaiśya and Sudra^[1]. It is also mentions in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa that this class of division was also there among the Gods^[2]. The metres also have such kind of division e.g.-Gāyatri chanda is for Brāhmaṇ, where as Tristup is meant for Kṣatriya. The Brāhmins were supreme in ritualistic and spiritual matters. They are called the Gods on the earth^[3]. The Kṣatriyas were identified by their chariots and weapons; they are symbol of vigour and strength^[4]. The Kṣatriyas are employer of people, protector of the Brāhmiṇs, and kills the enemies. The Brāhmiṇ and the Kṣatriyas are interdependent to each other. The major activities of the Vaiśyas appertained in trade and agriculture. The Vaiśyas were also initiated in the Vedic study and have the right to perform some Vedic sacrifices. Among the four social classes the Sūdras are called the most lower class in the society. They have no right to perform any Vedic sacrifices. The Sūdras are called unfit for sacrifice. The Brāhmiṇs and the Kṣatriyas never go behind the Vaiśyas and the Sūdras^[5].

According to Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, the Brāhmiṇ Priest and Kṣatriyas are regarded as complete, where as the remaining two, i.e. the Sūdras and the Vaiśyas are incomplete^[6]. Though it appears that there are class distinctions among the people of the Brahmanical age, but it was not yet very rigid. It can be ascertained by one of the records in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa that the Brāhmiṇs accepted the Kṣatriya king Janaka as a Brāhmiṇ because of his spiritual knowledge^[7]. Thus in spite of the establishment of the class system, learning and enlightenment were given adequate value.

II) Four orders of life

The four orders of life viz.

1. Studentship (Brahmacārya).
2. Domestic life (Gārhastya).
3. Third stage of religious life (Vānaprasta)
4. Ascetic life (Sannyāsa)^[8]

Only the first two are clearly mentioned in the Brāhmaṇas. The main dimension of the society was patriarchal family. The women’s rule was subordinate to that of the man.

Women were sometimes praised and sometimes blamed as recorded in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa–

‘Śrīyā vā etad rupaṃ yat patnayaḥ’^[9].
‘Strī vā eṣā yacchirnnaḥ’^[10]
‘tasmād apy-etarhi moghasaṃhitā eva yoṣa yā eva...................................... nṛtyati yo gāyati tasmin evaita nimislatamā iva”^[11]

III) Polygamy and Polyandry

Polygamy was in vague in the Brahmanical age, but Polyandry was not there^[12]. It is stated in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣat that sage Yājñavalkya has two wives by the name Maitreyee and Kātyayanī. The Maitrāyani Saṃhitā also records the ten wives of Manu. According to Aitareya Brāhmaṇa the king Hariśchandra had hundred wives[28]. Every king was legally allowed to have four wives or queen named as Mahisī, Vāvata, Parivṛktā and Pālāgali. Thus we find that polygamy was the common rule of that time but Polyandry was unknown; means one man may have many wives but one wife should not have more than one husband.

IV) Importance of the wife

The sacrificer together with his wife performed the sacrifices, though there were many sacrificial duties which were not performed by her. The wife of the sacrifice is regarded as the hind half of the sacrifice. Though she has no right to perform all the activities in the sacrifice, but there were many sacrifices which were not completed without the presence of wife of the sacrificer^[13]. According to Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa the wife is one’s half and she is regarded as the husband’s friend.

The wife is called Jāyā because the husband is reborn in her in the form of a son. According to Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa a man is incomplete without wife and child -“She, the wife, in sooth is one half of his own self; hence, as long as he does not obtain her, he is not re generated, for so long he is not re generated, he is incomplete. But as soon as he obtains her he is generated, for then he is complete”^[14].

V) Occupation, Entertainment and System of Education

Agriculture was the major occupation of the people of that time. Numerous occupations were also mentioned in the Brāhmaṇas, which indicates economic development of that time. Various arts and crafts and agriculture enabled the people to lead a settled life.

The three higher classes (Brāhmaṇ, Kṣatriya, and Vaiśya) learned the Vedas as the main subject of study. Other than Veda, another subject of study was also there, as for example-Itihāsa, Purāṇa, Sarpavidyā, Devajanavidyā and others. Though these subjects were also studied but Vedic study was highly prised.

In the Brahmanical age we find initiative of scientific treatment of subjects in ancient India. The six Vedāngas (Siskā, kalpa, Nirukta, Chanda, Vyākaraṇa, Jyotiṣa), the subsidiary subjects meant for proper recitation, understanding and ritual employment of the Vedas, had their beginnings in the Brāhmaṇas. Later on these subjects were studied much methodologically in the Vedānga texts.

The major entertainment of that period was dice play, chariot race, music and dance. Dice play was the oldest game started from the Ṛgvedic age. Chariot race was also practised by Gods. It was also a part of the ritual called Vājapeya sacrifice. Music and dance were especially popular among women. Various musical instruments like Vinā, Dundhubhi etc. were also used in that time.

The Brāhmaṇas mention the use of various metals of which gold were naturally preferred most. Ornaments made by gold and silver were also used by the people. Gold was also used as a sacrificial gift.

VI) Political Condition–

Monarchy was the prevailing system of government of that age. Though there was a system of election but later on kingship became hereditary as the famous Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa gives the records of a kingdom ruled by ten generations of a dynasty. But unsuccessful king was dethroned^[15].

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa -V/5/4/9 “Chatvāro vai varṇāh ǀ Brāhmaṇo rājanya Vaiśya Sudra|”

[2]:

Ibid-XIV/3/2/23-25.

[3]:

Ibid-IV/3/4/4 “Dvayā vai devā ǀ Ahiva deva atha ye Brāhmaṇa|”

[4]:

Ibid-I/2/4/2 “Brāhmaṇa rathena ca śareṇa ca rājanya bandhaba|”

[5]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa -VI/4/4/13 “Na kadācana Brāhmaṇascca kṣatriyascca vaisaṃ ca sūdraṃ ca paśccād|”

[6]:

Ibid-VI/6/3/13 “Aksatriyasya vā purohitasya vā sarvaṃ............................purohita vā|”.

[7]:

Ibid -XI/6/2/10-“Brahmā Janaka āsa|”

[8]:

Chāndogya-Upaniṣad II/23, VIII/15 Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad-II/4/1-“maitrayeyīti hovāca yajñavalkya udyāsyan vā are’hamasmāt stānātasmi hanta Teanayā kātyāyanyā’ntaṃ karavānīti|”

[9]:

Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa-III/9/4/7-8

[10]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa-XI/4/3/2

[11]:

Ibid-III/2/4/6

[12]:

Ibid -IX/4/1/6-“Ekasya bahyo jāyā bhavanti naikasyai bahvaḥ saha patayaḥ|” [28]. Aitareya-brāhmaṇa -VII/13-“Hariśchandro ha vaidhasa aikṣvāko rājā aputra āsa ǀ Tasya ha sataṃ jāyā babhubuḥ|”

[13]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa-I/9/2/3

[14]:

Ibid-V/2/1/10 “Yadaiva jāyāṃ bindate’tha prajāyante tarhi hi sarva bhavatī|”

[15]:

Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa-XII/9/3/1-“Duṣṭarīturhapauṃsāyaṇa|Daśapuruṣa rājjāyād....................................apururudhu||”