(vi) Rise of Art

After a general introduction to the subject as a whole, we first took the rise of the science, let us say a few words on the rise of the art. Creations of art have always preceeded with the formulation of their rules. Grammar came only after the language was fully evolved. Hence art of architecture has preceeded the science of architecture. Naturally, art ought to have been dealt with first. But as the main aim of this work is not the history of the art but its science, therefore, we considered the rise of science first and are taking the art afterwards—‘prādhānyena vyapadeśāḥ bhavanti’.

Early Periods

Early period may be sub-divided into pre-Vedic, Vedic and Epic periods. The Vedic period again is found treated in several of its sub-periods like Ṛgvedic, later Vedic, and Sūtra periods. Again I have guarded myself in taking Indus valley civilization as pre-Vedic otherwise the natural division of the periods would have been pre-Vedic, Vedic and, Epic as already referred to above. Something has already been said of the Ṛgvedic culture and Indus valley culture in the context of the origin of Indian architecture, want of space forbids me to treat this subject with any detailed expatiations. So long as the controversy of Indus culture whether it is interior or exterior or more properly contemporary of the Vedic culture is not settled, any detailed treatment of Indus art is not very helpful in this outline history of Indian art. We may therefore, leave-this valley as it was so done by its makers. As regards the later periods, the Epic epoch, the Buddhist and the Paurāṇika ages, some remarks have already been made. Here therefore, we may concentrate on the architectural history of our land as may be followed to, before the Golden Guptas rose to their abound power, magnificence and artistic exhuberance characteristic of the evolution and development of Indian art. It is from this period that the rise of Prāsādas and the Vimānas, the Hindu Temples the specimens of which reserved in the monuments, had begun. And the -subsequent are prehistory of Indian art chiefly centres round our Temples in the different styles of art-craft-manship in both the parts of this sub-continent. I have, therefore, reserved this outline history of Indian temples in a subsequent part—V ‘Temple-architecture’. The principles of Temple-architecture and its allied models and representations should go together. Temple-building is very much associated with temple-sculpture and this sculpture is more related to iconography in India, hence an attempt will be made to treat this subject in only very brief outlines. Iconographical sculpture and painting is the subject matter of the second volume of these studies—Vāstuśāstra Vol. II—Hindu canons of Iconography and Painting (already published—the subject of my D. Litt. Thesis, cf. the general introduction to this volume) where this subject is fully treated both in its background and the canons of art along with literary and archeological evidences. Thus our purview of this chapter gets very much delimited. All this related to religious art and architecture. What about the secular or popular or more correctly the civil architecture? This is related not only to the house-building art but also to the canons of Town-planning, foundation of villages and towns in. their manifold aspects. Again these may be conveniently divided as per genesis of the land into popular residential houses and the palaces of kings. All these three principal topics of civil or royal architecture need be dealt with in the respective parts allotted to each of these subjects where the scientific canons have been elaborated. Unfortunately in India the history of architecture revolving round civil or royal buildings is very very meagre indeed; nevertheless an attempt will be made to reconstruct this history if not from the very meagre archaeological evidences at least from the references abound in literature especially the poetical works.

Again the pre-Gupta history of Indian art, may not be dwelt upon at any great length as this treatise is not directly related to that subject. It is only to provide a connecting link between the manuals on the one hand and the monuments on the other that this outline history is called for. Accordingly this artistic history is comprised by three main developments of art—art of architecture, art of sculpture, and that of painting as well. Sculptural notice has been reserved at elsewhere—vide Pt. V Temple-architecture of this Volume (see sculpture). Vāstuśāstra Vol. II and also my ‘Hindu Canons of Painting’ published separately are my works where both these subjects—Sculpture (Iconography) and Painting have been treated.

Historical beginning of Indian architecture is traced from the rule of the early Mauryan Dynasty (C. 400 B. C.) and these are regarded as Wooden origins, which are keeping with our thesis that early Indian art was wooden grounded in the Vedic buildings which were characteristically Aryan institution. The later buildings as alluded in Epics may be said to mirror the influence of Asura or Nāga stone-architecture. The chief features of the early and later Mauryan architecture are the foundations of cities and construction of the royal palaces. The famous capital city of the Mauryas, the Pāṭaliputra, and the capital of the Pāñcāla country, the Ahicchatra, may be said to illustrate the town-planning system of ancient India in a characteristic manner. It was a stereotyped Canon for the then town-planning to lay out the fortification consisting of moats, ramparts, gates and towers. The palace-architecture is illustrated by the Mauryan palace at Pātaliputra, a detailed notice of Which is reserved in the part devoted to Pal ice-architecture. All this is secular or civil architecture.

The other notable buildings of the period mainly consist of Stūpas, Chaitya [Caitya] halls and Saṅghārāmas which may be classed as religious architecture. We know that Indian art is the handmaid of religion and accordingly Indian architecture owes its origin from Vedic Rituals and the construction of ‘citis’ is the precursor of Hindu-Temple. The Hindu Temple is a growth of ages and multiple origions [origins?] have contributed its formation. Stūpas, domed structures of brick or stone masonary, Caitya halls the chapels and Vihāras the monastries formed important monuments of this period. After Vedic sacrifice Devapūjā, the Bhakti-cult gave rise toa great impetus to the construction of images, devagṛhas or devatāyatanāni and, Columns bearing the emblems of the gods in front of such sanctuaries, the dhvajastambhas viz. Besnagar (old Gwalior state) Pillar.

The origin of Stūpas may be traced from the hemi-spherical structures emerged out of the earthen funeral mounds (smaśānas) under which according to Vedic ritual, the ashes of the dead were buried.

‘The earliest of the stūpas now extant represent a plain and simple structure consisting of a hemispherical dome (aṇḍa), placed on a low circular base and surmounted by a square box (harmikā), which is further crowned by the parasol or umbrella (chatra), the symbol of universal paramountacy. The dome was the principal element of the stūpa and was surrounded by a pradakṣiṇāpatha, or passage for circum-ambulation occasionally fenced off by a railing or wall.’

This original form of the stūpa may be recognised in the Great Stupa at Sanchi which represents one of the earliest specimens now extant. Other notable example is illustrated at Bharhut The structure which obtained the greatest celebrity in Asia was the relic tower or pagoda which Kaniśka [Kaniṣka?] erected at Purushpur (Peshawar) over the relics of Buddha. Stupas were also erected in southern India from a fairly early period, and the Andhra region seems to have been literally studded with them. The most important of these monuments were situated at Amarāvatī, Jaggayyapeta, Ghantasala, Nagarjunkonda etc.

Chaityas [Caityas] may be regarded Buddhist shrines in which the votive chaitya occupied the place of the altar. Such sanctuaries appear to have existed from very early times and the ruined foundations of chaitya halls traced at Sanchi, Sarnath, Sonari etc. may be said to belong to the period of Aśoka. The Chaitya halls, now extant are hewn out of a living rock. They are a copy of wooden structural buildings sculptured replicas of which are found in abundance in early Indian art. These chaityas may be said to represent the Addayoga, one of five-fold abodes, the Blessed One had sanctioned to Bhikkhus. I have already remarked that it is shrine-cum-monastery and its resemblance to the Christian Church not only in shape but also to some extent in use is not quite correct. In the Christian church the place of central altar is the chief architectural building, of course with its superstructure etc. but here in Indian chaityas, the places of the residence of the devotees and the object of devotion, both occupy architect’s attention. The centre no doubt bears a remarkable resemblance to a Christian church. The earliest specimens of these chaityas are in the rock cut caves at Barabar near Gaya in Bihar and the Sudama cave excavated by Aśoka for the Ājivikas. The most important of the Barabar group is the Lomasa Ṛṣi cave.

The Western Ghats:

The next stage of evolution, after the Barabar group is found in a cave at Bhaja, near Poona, in the Western Ghats. Of approximately the same style and pattern are the Caitya halls at Kondana, the delapidated Caitya cave, Pitalkhora in Khandesh and also one of the early caitya halls at Ajanta. All these three may be taken as contemporary to the Bhaja Caitya and all the four represent the oldest specimens. The movement continued at Ajanta, Nasik and Karie. The Caitya at Karie is the largest and may also be regarded the finest product. It may also be regarded the culmination of the early phase of this class of architecture.

Monastries (Vihāras):

The third off-shoot of early Indian architecture is illustrated in the Saṅghārāmas or Vihāras, what are called monastries. Originally they were built on the pattern of a secular private house the śālā-house with wooden materials, but later on as the monastic organisation developed, they become elaborate brick structures with many adjuncts, Often they consisted of several storeys, and along each side of the inner court-yard there usually ran a long corridor supported on pillars. This building may fairly correspond to Harmyas and Prāsādas the two of the five-fold religious residence sanctioned by the Lord. Both caityas and Vihāras go together. This is Buddhist institution and the early specimens are found at caves just enumerated above in connection with caityas. Jainism also contributed to the evolution and development of ancient Vihāras. The Jain caves at Udayagiri and Khandagiri near Bhuvaneśvara in Orissa, are remarkable;the most elaborate, among these 35 excavations, being the Ganeśa and the Rānī gumphas. The earliest of the Vihāra, caves in Western India, are those at Bhaja and Bedsa. Of the other pre-Christian Vihāras, mentioned may be made of those at Ajanta, Kondane, Pitalkhora, Nasika (early group) and the Ganesalena at Junnar. The storeyed Vihāra is illustrated at Karie. It is simply grand and magnificent.

Asokan pillars in the history of early Indian art are a land-mark. But they should be treated in the context of Indian sculpture rather in that of architecture. Similar is the case with Śuṅga-Kaṇva art (Madhyadeśa and Eastern India) as represented at Sanchi, Bharhut, Bodh Gaya etc. etc. and at Bhaja and Karie (Western India) and the reputed centre of art like Vengi, Mathura and Gandhar.