Jain Philosophy (Introduction)

Jainism is neither merely a code of rules nor a set of metaphysical principles but a way of life. The Jain metaphysics is practically an inextricable admixture of science and ethico-religious principles (Bhattacharyya 1999: 179). It has been said that the Jain principles of Anekānta and Ahiṃsā have profoundly influenced the Indian way of life. So also, the Jain contribution to Indian logic is to be found in the doctrine of Anekāntavada and Syādvāda (Bhaskaran 2001: 33).

The religious philosophy of Jainism teaches that there are nine truths or realities (Nava-tattva). They are:

1. soul (Jīva),
2. non-soul (Ajīva),
3. merit (Puṇya),
4. sin or demerit (Pāpa),
5. influx of Karma (Āsrava),
6. stoppage of karmic matter (Saṃvara),
7. bondage (Bandha),
8. shedding of karmic matter (Nirjarā), and
9. liberation (Mokṣa)

[Bhattacharya 1974: 4; Bhattacharyya op.cit.: 170].

The whole universe of being is traced to the two everlasting, uncreated, co-existing but independent categories of Jīva and Ajīva. These two principles comprise the spiritual and physical contents of the universe. A Jīva is whatever is living, whatever is not mechanical (ibid.). It is a concrete unity, a compound substance, a combination of materiality knowledge and consciousness. According to the Jain philosophy, souls may be theoretically arranged in a continuous series according to the degrees of consciousness.

The Tamil classic text Merumandara-Purāṇam (edited by Appasamy Sastri 1967) mentioned that Jīva are of two kinds–

1. mokṣa jīvas or perfect souls and
2. saṃsara jīvas or imperfect souls.

The Ajīva is that which is devoid of three kinds of consciousness. It is an object which can be touched, tested, seen and smelt.

We can say that the category of Ajīva is divided into:

1. matter (pudgala),
2. space (akāsa),
3. motion (dhara),
4. rest (adhara) and
5. time (kāla).

[(Bhaskaran 2001: 35]

The basic tenets of Jainism, which Mahāvīra preached, are the doctrines of karma, rebirth and mokṣa (salvation); its concept of the world as eternal and imperishable is unique in its nature; its contributions to the philosophy of anekāntavāda, syādvāda and nayavāda are considered as highest manifestations of human critical faculties; its expositions on social justice and equality are uncommon in human history; and finally, its philosophy of ahiṃsā (non-violence) is unparalleled and unmatched in the history of mankind. At present, the popularity of Jainism is actually the outcome of the contributions of Lord Mahāvīra towards the growth and development of human history.

Before going on to discuss the other aspects of Jainism, it is very important to mention about the Jain doctrine of karma. The doctrine of karma is common among all the philosophical systems of India. However, among the Jainas it has a special significance. It is the key to the understanding of all the unexplained facts of life and universe. Ordinarily karma means human action and is usually conceived by the Indian philosophers as leading to the good or bad result in this life or in another which the performer of the action is to enjoy or suffer. However, in Jainism karma is conceived as something essentially material which gets attached to the soul just as dust gets attached to the cloth. Hence, the highest goal of the Jains is to get rid of all old karma and to stop the influx of any new one.

Jainism believes in the soul’s transmigration and its governing principle i.e., karma. The word has two meanings, one is “any activity” and other is “fine particles that get attracted and stick to the soul on account of its activity”. That which is being done is “karma’ and is the etymology of the term karma. Both these meanings are appropriate in the context. The whole universe is packed with fine karmic particles. However, when these particles get attracted to the soul and stick to it and bind it through its activity, then only they are designated by the term karma (Sharma 1978: 65).

The principles of Jīva and Ajīva, discussed above, are the ontological basis of the cosmos and their inter-relationship explains the worldly career of a soul. The most important aspect of this inter-relationship is represented by the penetration of matter into soul, which is a vital element of the Jain theory of karma (Tatia 1975: 13). Mahāvīra’s great message to mankind is that birth is nothing that caste is nothing and that karma is everything and on the destruction of karma, the future happiness depends (Mohapatra 1984: 8) .

According to the Jain traditions, truth exists from time eternal; and the world composed of the living and non-living substances has been in existence for all eternity, and undergoing an infinite number of variations, produced simply by the physical and super-physical powers inherent in the substances. The Jain sages divide the whole span of time into two equal cycles, called Avasarpiṇi kāla and Utsarpiṇi kālā. Each avasarpiṇi and utsarpiṇi kāla extends over ten Kota-koṭi sāgaropama years which are sub-divided into six parts known as aras.

The six divisions of avasarpiṇi are known as:

1. suṣamāsuṣamā,
2. suṣamā,
3. suṣamā-duḥṣamā,
4. duḥṣamā-suṣamā,
5. duḥṣamā and
6. duḥṣamāduḥṣamā.

The six divisions of utsarpiṇi are known as:

1. duḥṣamā-duḥṣamā,
2. duḥṣamā,
3. duḥṣamā-suṣamā,
4. suṣamā-duḥṣamā,
5. suṣamā and
6. suṣamā-suṣamā.

[Stevenson 1915: 272-6; Jash 1989: 40 e.n.].