Part 6 - Growth of the clientele of early Buddhism

Wandering asceticism was the preferred way of life in early Buddhism. So the Buddha did not stay for long in any particular place. He occasionally came to Vārāṇasī and always stayed at deer park Isipatana. Being located in a central position Vārāṇasī was connected to other important contemporary cities of Vaiśālī, Śrāvastī, Rajagṛha, Andhakavinda, Bhaddiya or even Kapilavastu.^[1] Therefore, on the way of his movement he and his followers often took a halt at deer park. Being in continuous touch with the Buddha a very dedicated lay community grew up at Vārāṇasī-Sārnāth. A tale of the Buddha and his attachment to the laity was made into a legend in the Vinaya text. We hear of a couple Suppiya and Suppiyā who were described as both doers and givers and were always at service of the fraternity. Suppiyā the female devotee knocked each vihāra, each cell to know what service she can provide to the fraternity.

One bhikkhu desirous of eating meat could not get it all over Vārāṇasī because cattle slaughter was restricted. Therefore he asked for some meat to the lady. She had the same problem of not procuring the meat yet could not turn down the request of the monk. So she offered the flesh of her own body cut from her thigh. Knowing her sacrifice the Buddha met her and healed her great wound with his magical powers.^[2] Barring the exaggeration the legend certainly points to the fact that the Buddha’s great charm brought him a large number of followers, mostly from the wealthy circle of Vārāṇasī. Genuine to their faith they served the newly founded Buddhist church and guaranteed all the monetary need of the saṃgha. As Yasa, his friends or even the lay couple Suppiya-Suppiyā the laity often invited the whole Buddhist community and offered them sumptuous treat. A sign of the Buddha’s growing popularity was attested by the event of the gift of a woollen garment made half of Vārāṇasī cloth to the famous Buddhist physician Jīvaka by the king of Vārāṇasī.^[3] Very soon after the dharmacakrapravartana, Buddhism gained a very solid ground. By its simple interpretation of religion and populist social approach it successfully created a huge fanfare.

The support of the royal patrons and the merchants surely contributed to the success of the Buddhism from the very beginning. The threat of dissension of the saṃgha was a major problem of the time. Even at Vārāṇasī the followers of Assaji (Aśvajit) and Punnabasu engaged in different evil practices who were admitted to the order before. They stayed at Kitā hill at Vārāṇasī. The Buddha came to know about the corrupt activities that took place there. The meeting of the saṃgha was convened and the motion to expel these fake ascetics was taken.^[4] This incident brings to our notice that even during the Buddha’s lifetime the saṃgha worked in a perfectly democratic way and the decision was taken by the assembly. Despite these merits largely the movement was still in a much fluid state. It was based on informal ways and practices. There was no definite set of laws however they were evolving as the situation demanded. But still it clearly lacked organisation and cohesion. Absence of permanent residence and wandering practices may be partially accounted for this looseness of the Buddhist order. Aśoka’s involvement in Buddhism helped the growth of the religion on various grounds. Except literary reference to some Buddhist communities at Mathura or Ujjaini, on the ground of absence of archaeological proof it is doubtful that actually this order ever existed. Nevertheless it would be wise to suggest that Buddhism was mainly restricted to the middle Gaṅgā plain before Aśoka.

The history of the Buddhist order at Sārnāthcomes to an abrupt break in the time betweenthe Buddha’s Nirvāṇa and the time of Aśoka. It may be because we do not see any structural remains at Sārnāth prior to Aśoka’s time. Primacy of Buddhism among numerous new philosophies of the 6^th century BCE Gaṅgā plains may greatly be ascribed to Aśoka’s interest in the faith and his mission to spread the message of Buddhism far and wide. It was he who may be credited to induct a regularisation of the Buddhist law and a strict discipline in the order. No architectural or any other sort of antiquities earlier than Aśoka’s time was reported from Sārnāth. So it has been suggested that no structure of permanent nature was built in this time. Perhaps, inclined to the ascetic culture the Buddhists did not need any permanent residence. They were satisfied with simple huts made of leaves and branches of trees. The earliest extant monument of Sārnāth comes from Aśoka’s time. He was the greatest convert of Buddhism flourished roughly about two hundred years of the nirvāṇa of the Buddha reigning around 272-232 BCE. In general the earliest Buddhist monuments in India are also built by Aśoka over some corporeal remains of the Buddha. He gathered them from eight earlier stūpas.

Bodily remains of the Buddha after his cremation were kept in the stūpas of Rājagṛha, Vaiśālī, Kapilavastu, Alakappo and Rāmagrāma. Except Rāmagrāma, remains of the other places were taken by the emperor and he then preserved and enshrined them in numerous Buddhist stūpas. As the most important patron of the church Aśoka took crucial decisions. Deposition of corporeal remains in so many stūpas was certainly a measure to evoke greater degree of devotion of the people and thereby ensuredthe spread of Buddhism to distant places. Sārnāth, being central to Buddhism and not being far from the imperial seat of Aśoka did not miss the attention of the emperor. He built important monuments and laid down strict discipline for the order. Three Aśokan monuments have been found which constituted the earliest of the Sārnāth relics. The principal Aśokan remains of Sārnāth were the famous Sārnāth lion capital pillar. It was originally made of single block of Chunar sandstone though now found in a broken condition, the Dharmarājika stūpa and the monolithic railing found in the south chapel of the Main Shrine.

It is well known that to maintain the unity of his empire Aśoka had to make some compromises and innovation. He adopted some principles that would be acceptable to all sections of the society. His personal religion was Buddhism. As a lay devotee he took much interest in Buddha, Dharma and Saṃgha. His devotion to the Buddha was restricted to the enshrinement of bodily remains of the Buddha because he had not much to do after the Buddha’s demise. But he took direct steps for the promulgation of the dharma. This was made easier by the detailed bureaucratic and administrative set up reaching down to provincial or local levels and the already existing urban base of Buddhism now broadened. So it was he who popularised the worship of bodily remains of the Buddha spread it to different sites collected from the eight sites.

At Sārnāth, in particular Aśoka first laid the foundation of the monastic building of some permanent nature. Nothing earlier than his time has so far been discovered here. To transform Buddhism from local to universal religion he sent his emissaries to different countries. Chief among them were his son Mahendra and daughter Saṃghamitra (friend of the order). He appointed his Dharmamahamatras to different regions to spread the message of Dhamma and to maintain sectarian order. This band of officials was also responsible for the promotion and welfare of the Dharma. So far the saṃgha or the order was concerned, as the chief patron Aśoka directly interfered if necessary. For example the edict found in the west of the Main Shrine Aśoka categorically warns the monks and nuns to create any schism in the order, else the monk or nun had to wear a white robe and had to reside in a non-residence. The Aśokan order of not creating division in the church was not kept. There was growth of factionalism in Buddhism and from time to time Sārnāth was dominated by different sects. From about 300CE the whole establishment came under the dominance of the Sarvāastivādins, the old and orthodox sect. but they could not hold the power for long. Another inscription of the 4^th century CE confirms that the Sammitiyas of the Vāstiputrika sect was in power at Sārnāth. They were still in power till 7^th century CE because Hiuen Tsang visited the site at that time mentions of them.^[5]

The kind of patronage that has been offered by Aśoka, continued till the early medieval timeswhen the Gahadvala queen kumaridevī made a generous grant to the Buddhist shrine. The monastic establishment enjoyed consistent attention except few brief interruptions when the royal faith is essentially non-Buddhist. For example the Śuṅgas did not add any building to Sārnāth Buddhist Vihāra, but did not disturb it either. Moreover in some cases Śuṅga layers can be seen above or near the Maurya layers denoting some kind of repairs being done in this period. The site has also yielded sculptures or architectural remains assignable to the 2^nd century BCE, which corresponds to the Śuṅga period. It was not the king but private individuals erected them and the Śuṅgas had a tolerant attitude towards them. The same attitude was maintained by the next two imperial powers of the Kānvas and Andhras. With less royal help the vihāra had to depend mainly on the wealthy lay devotees.

The Kuṣāṇas, being devout Buddhists resumed donations and patronage to the monastic establishment. A new art form also developed in this time. The Buddha images were introduced in the plastic art. Such specimens were found atand some inscriptional documents of the Kuṣāṇas are scattered in the whole site. The Kuṣāṇa inscriptions are donative and not regulatory like Aśoka. The Kuṣāṇas, particularly Kaṇiṣka, being devout Buddhist were attached to the Sārnāth establishment but the Kuṣāṇa influence was mainly donative and artistic. The same artistic tradition continued and even refined under the Guptas with additions, repairs and sculptures. Sārnāth continued to enjoy royal aid and patronage regularly, from the Pratiharas, Pālas, Gahadwalas-all the prominent dynasties till the medieval times. So the maintenance and supervision of the convent was not a great problem.

From an inscription of Samvat 1083 i.e. 1026 CE of Mahipāla it is known that two brothers Sthirapāla and Vasantapāla renovated two prominent monuments-Dharmarājikastūpa and Dhamek stūpa. The last and the most magnificent donationwas made in 1193 CE by the Gahadwala queen Kumāri Devī. She constructed a temple in the name of Dharmacakra-jinavihāra. Sārnāth grew and prospered through the ages with royal and popular support.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

Friedrich Maxmüller ed. & translated by T. W. Rhys Davies and Hermann Oldenberg, The Mahavagga, Sixth Khandaka, 7.1, Sixth Khandaka 8.1, Fifth Khandaka, 8.1, Eighth Khandaka, 14.1, 15.1, Vinaya Text, Sacred Book of the East, Vol. 17, Oxford, 1882,pp.80, 87, 22,214, 216

[2]:

Ibid,, Sixth Khandaka, chapter 23, pp.81- 86

[3]:

The Mahavagga, Eighth khandaka, chapter 2, pp.195-6

[4]:

Friedrich Maxmüller ed. & translated by T. W. Rhys Davies and Hermann Oldenberg, The Cullavagga, First Khandaka, chapter 13,16, Vinaya Text, Sacred Book of the East, Vol.17, Oxford, 1882,pp.347-54,357-58.

[5]:

Dayaram Sahni,Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath with a plan of Excavation, Calcutta, Government of India Central Publication Branch, 1926, p.4.