Rock-cut Architecture

The monastic edifices at Udayagiri and Khandagiri were excavated at different heights with taking consideration into various technical aspects of the stone such as quality, its compactness and size etc^[1]. The stone at Udayagiri and Khandagiri is of coarse grained sand stone of soft, porous and incoherent in nature. But there is no systematic layout or proper planning at the twin hill and the excavator saved both labour and expense by following the configuration of the rock and by connecting different caves, wherever necessary, by rock-cut steps. Predilection is given near the top ledge or boulder probably to lessen the load over the caves. Meant for the residence of Jaina ascetics, who were noted for their self-mortification, the caves provided little amenities. The inner height of the cells does not allow a man to stand erect. They are generally plain inside except a few embellished with carvings and sculptures in the medieval period. Some of the caves are too narrow for a person even to stretch. The door openings are invariably small and one has almost to crawl to enter the cells through them. The cells were not provided with niches. The only place where scriptures and articles of necessity could be kept is the rock-cut shelves across the side walls of verandahs. A fully developed monastery presents one or more cells preceded by a common verandah, the latter having a leveled ground for the courtyard in some cases like Cave Nos.1, 9 and 10 of Udayagiri and Cave No.3 of Khandagiri. The cells have been ranged on one, two or three sides of the verandah. The ceiling of the cells are often arched and convex replicate that of a hut, the roofs of the verandah supported on nonfunctional architectures resting on pillars exactly as in a hut with bamboo or wooden posts to break the flow of rain water. The doorjambs incline inwards making the opening slightly wider at the base than at the top. The cells are adequately lighted by the profusion of doors and in few cases by windows as well.

Classification of Caves

The caves may be categories^[2] under the following heads—

On the basis of verandah component (i) one plain without a verandah, (ii) and the other with a regular pillared verandah irrespective of the number of back cells, side cells, side wings, double storey etc. The second categories of caves are all characterized by a benched verandah. Their pillars are of a uniform pattern, square below and above and octagonal in the middle, the corners of the square chamber with the resultant formation of half medallion at the points of transitions.

On the basis of storied (i) Single storied:-Chhota-Hati-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha, Jagannatha-Gumpha, Tentuli-Gumpha, Mahavira-Gumpha, Navamuni-Gumpha, Ananta-Gumpha etc., (ii) Double storied:-Rani-Gumpha, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha, Svargapuri-Manchapuri-Gumpha, Lalatendukesari-Gumpha, Udyotakesari-Gumpha etc.

Components of Caves

The key component of a cave is manly includes cell, floor, door and door-jambs, windows, ceiling/roof, pillars and pilasters, brackets and verandah, etc^[3].

Cell:

The caves are premeditated with one or more cells either on the main wing or along their sides. These are mainly oblong in plan and are prepared in such a way that few are provided lying accommodation while some are only sitting accommodation to the wondering mendicants. The inner walls of caves are generally plain as in most cases a thin coat of lime has been applied. Small holes or niches have been fashioned on the wall to keep lamps and other articles of daily use as noticed in few instances.

Floor:

Floors of all cells are generally highly polished and raised at the back. The sloping served as pillow for the residential monks. The inclination of floor extends from one end to the other which indicates more than one Jaina ascetic can be slept here. The floor made plain by chiseling out the uneven surface through chisels and hammers of lesser gradation and their surface was made smooth by rubbing or polishing the inner parts with stones of much harder variety. This process was probably carried out in hand with occasional addition of water.

Door and door-jambs:

Door forms an important feature in the cave architecture. The door openings are invariably small and vary from 1 to 4 depending upon the size of the caves in both the hills. They are in most cases in the front wall and access through the front verandah.

The door-jambs in some cases slope inwards and causing the opening slightly wider at the base than at the top which is a common feature in many caves of the earlier date including the one at Barabara. The doors have grooves, cut all around their outer frames, probably to receive movable wooden or bamboo shutters. Single doors are also traced by the evidence of additional holes for pivots at the doorsill and a lintel in a few cases.

Windows:

For access of light and air windows are rarely met within the cave architecture. In the twin hills windows are noticed in Khandagiri-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha and Rani-Gumpha (upper storey-left wing).

Ceilings:

Ceilings of cells are both designed in curved and flat shape, but in respect of verandahs they are entirely flat. The arched roofs are normally elevated in the middle. The cells which have curved roof normally provide more standing space than the ones designed in flat or standing roofs. The ceilings are provided very low in height. For instance the Rani-Gumpha, Bagha-Gumpha, Sarpa-Gumpha etc. do not allow a man to stand erect while the remaining caves are only slightly more than man high.

Verandahs:

Verandahs are all opened in front and normally devoid of any architectural or sculptural details except at the lower main wing of Rani-Gumpha, wall of Ganesa-Gumpha and side walls of Barabhuji-Gumpha. But the back walls of verandah which is also the front wall of the cell are relieved with number of narrative panels. Array of sculptures in friezes within semi-circular arch-bands, tympanum, pilasters, railings, birds, animal and human figurines are noticed at Ganesa-Gumpha, Rani-Gumpha, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha, Manchapuri-Gumpha, Ananta-Gumpha and Tatowa-Gumpha No.2.

In some caves long shelves have been fashioned on the side walls of the verandah to provide accommodation for scriptures or articles of daily use of the Jaina ascetics.

Pillars and pilasters:

Pillars arranged in rows are generally provided at the verandahs to support the roof. On the other hand pilasters noticed at the side walls are only ornamental and non-functional in nature. They are the one and same pattern in a particular cave and their number increases with respect to the size of cave. In smaller caves like Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha and Tatowa-Gumpha No.1 only one pillar in the center and two side pilasters serve the purpose. There are three distinctive varieties of pillars available at the site and stepped pedestal is common to all the pillars.

Pillars are divided into three sections, the central part of which is octagonal and lower and upper is square. As this group has no capital, the shaft directly touches the verandah ceiling and appears to be more profusely used. The brackets usually projects in-ward and out-ward from these pillars in order to provide added support to the roof.

The second variety of pillars are divided into five sections of which the basal, central and terminal ones are square and the intermediate ones are rendered octagonal by chamfering the corners of the squares. The pillars and pilasters alike of this group are having capitals representing different animal figures resting on corbelled abacus above inverted lotus flower. These varieties of pillars are noticed in the lower right wing of Rani-Gumpha and Jagannatha-Gumpha.

The third variety is noticed at Jagannatha-Gumpha, the largest cell of Udayagiri. The central pillar possesses through four, eight, sixteen, eight and four sides chamfered to achieve half medallion.

The upper part of most of the pillars and pilasters are relieved with enigmatic and winged animal and bird figures seated back to back and a few decorative motifs. The door ways of the facade are each flanked by side pilasters on ghata bases above stepped pedestals as a common feature. The ghata bases are either plain or decorated. The shafts of these pilasters are plain or flat, fluted or decorated. Abacus is both in stepped or square in shape. But the crowning elements in each case are addorsed animals over plain or bell-shaped lotuses.

Brackets:

Brackets are provided on the inner and outer sides of the verandah pillars to support the super structure. They are carved with decorative motifs of animal, human and enigmatic figures in various poses. Yaksha images and ganas as bracket figures are notice at Ganesa-Gumpha. In Rani-Gumpha, Jagannatha-Gumpha and Manchapuri-Gumpha human as well as animals are carved as bracket figures.

Arches:

The horse-shoe shaped arches at the entrance resting on pilasters are commonly visible in the caves. The outer edge of the arch is surmounted by svastikas, vadhamangalas or by a triangular pointed crest or finial enclosing a floral ornament or a figure.

Tympanum:

The semicircular space created by the arched band over the door ways are known as tympanum. Except Ananta-Gumpha and Tatowa-Gumpha No.2, they are well decorated by floral devices and religious activities.

Railings:

The railings are provided with sculptured friezes as they appear prominently running in continuation with the parapet on the verandah and around the tree in the third tympanum of Ananta-Gumpha, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha and below the sculptural freezes of Rani-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha and Manchapuri-Gumpha. Except the Rani-Gumpha where railings are in three barrel pattern whereas in other places they represent significantly two long bars. In case of Ananta-Gumpha (merlons) pyramidal battlements intervene the railings.

Guard rooms:

Two small rooms which often regarded as guard rooms are noticed in the lower storey of Rani-Gumpha, adjacent to left and right wing. Provisions of guards in front of the terminal piers of some leading caves of both the hills yet form another early feature of cave architecture of Odisha. The glaring examples are found at Rani-Gumpha, Ganesa-Gumpha and Tatowa-Gumpha. These guards are equipped with long spear of sword either standing steadily or seated on animals.

Rock-cut Step-Wells

“Step-well” as its name denotes is a well approached through a series of receding or descending steps. Locally, the step wells are called by the various names as Samuka, Bauli or Bamphi^[4]. On the basis of constructional technique and building material step wells may divided into three types: (i) Rock-cut (ii) Structural (iii) Both Rock-cut and Structural. As there is no river flowing by the side of the caves a few step wells are cut into the rock to hold rain water. Such rare wells exist on both the hills namely Hathi-Nisuni and Lalita Kunda in Udayagiri and Akasa Ganga/Radha Kunda and Shyama Kunda in Khandagiri etc.

Lalita Kunda and Hathi-Nisuni:

The two wells Lalita Kunda and Hathi-Nisuni located respectively to the north-east and east of Ganesa-Gumpha in Udayagiri^[5]. The name Hathi-Nisuni comes as local people believe that the royal elephant of Lalatendukesari was usually stayed here. The well is roughly square and having series of rock-cut steps from the south to approach the water in an inclined manner. Lalita Kunda appears to be shallow one and the top edges of its four sides are cut unevenly. Irregular steps have been provided on the north and eastern sides to approach near the water.

Radha Kunda:

In Khandagiri, close to the Lalatendu cave (Cave No.12), a beautiful step well is noticed to the west of the said cave. That is locally called Akash Ganga^[6]. It is oblong in plan and fed by natural spring at the bottom. It has two rows of steps leading towards the water. Very interestingly, there are some post holes, in an alignment in between the two staircases and another alignment is on the outer wall of the well are found. Probably, there were some wooden structures over the well to protect the water in those days or some temporary arrangements were made at the time for rituals.

Shyama Kunda:

Another step well also noticed near the Radha Kunda named as Shyama Kunda^[7], which is cut deep into the rock looking like a chamber or cave. It is also provided with some steps to reach there and located to the south-western comer of the hill.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

T. Satyamurty and J.K. Patnaik, “Architectural peculiarities of Jaina caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri,” in H.C. Das and et al. (eds.), Cultural Heritage of Khurda, Bhubaneswar, 2003, pp. 180-189.

[2]:

Ibid., p.183.

[3]:

R.P. Mohapatra, op.cit., pp.70-83.

[4]:

G.N. Jena, “Step well in Orissa, A case study”, OHRJ, Vol.-XVIII, 2005, P.28.

[5]:

R.P. Mohapatra, Jaina Monuments in Orissa, Delhi, 1984, pp.149-150.

[6]:

Ibid.

[7]:

G.N. Jena, op.cit., p.42.