Introduction

Tibet is an ancient nation with rich indigenous culture, language and religious history dating back to more than 1000 BC^[1]. Scientists have said that human civilization existed in Tibet as far as 12,000^[2] years back, and primitive tools and implements found in the regions are said to date back to some 8000 years^[3]. Tonpa Shenrab, the founder of the indigenous Bon religion is said to have appeared around 16,017 BC^[4], and Bon calendar of sixty year cycle inaugurated from this year. Scholars like Namkhai Norbu put him at 1917 BC^[5]. It is to be noted that before the arrival of the first Tibetan king, Nyatri Tsanpo, who unified Tibet, there was a proper country by the name of Zhangzhung. It is supposed to comprise most of the western Tibet, Ladakh and the neighboring regions. Most of the regions bordering the Himalayan Ranges share Tibetan ethnicity and language. Tibetan religion and culture were widely practiced in these regions. Even today we find many traces of ancient dialect and culture of Tibet in most of the Himalayan regions: Ladhak, Spiti, Kinnaur, Arunachal, Sikkim in India and in some regions in Nepal and Pakistan. Even now, people of Kinnaur [Tib: Khu nu] region prefer calling themselves Zhangzhungpas. This cultural and historical importance of the Tibet's indigenous religion has not been appreciated openly and it has not found its rightful place in the pages of the Tibetan history.

Tibet that the modern world knows is a Buddhist country blessed by the Lord Avalokiteshvara, the Buddha of compassion. Buddhism from India brought enormous change in Tibet and greatly enriched the Tibetan religious and cultural history. These are well documented in the Tibetan religious texts and scriptures. But much before the advent of Buddhism in 7th century, Tibet's indigenous religion Bon sustained the Tibetan culture and imperial authority and greatly influenced the neighboring regions too. As Buddhism gained strong foot hold and support in the land, indigenous religion and values began to suffer discrimination. Ancient myths and values were cast into oblivion. New myths of Indic affiliation ascribed major aspect of Tibetan civilization, the origin of Tibetan race, the first King of Tibet, Tibetan language etc. to India. As native values were castigated, Bon scholars too began to assert the origin of Bon religion to some Tagzig [Tib:sTag-gzig], a distant land supposed to be Persia at the time. In this way, Bon and Buddhist scholars, the two major authorities in Tibet in some way competed in ascribing the native wisdom and culture to Tagzig and India. Therefore, despite being an ancient civilization with rich history and culture, we find some serious contradictions in Tibetan myth, religion and history, which do not corroborate to the history and ancient nature of the Tibetan civilization.

What is Myth, Religion and History

Myth can be defined as a certain ancient beliefs or narratives which are respected or upheld by a community. It may not be true and stand to reason, but myths are source of information about the origin and civilization of the community. In order to understand the historical evolution of any nation, it is very important to study the origin of the people and its race, and that of the neighboring regions. Ancient histories of the nations are generally mixed with myth, legends and parables of gods and demons. Tibet also has its own myth on origin of world and human beings. Just as the Greek civilization has the genealogy of gods and goddesses, Tibet also has hierarchy of gods and goddesses in heaven and on earth. Lha [Gods], klu [Nagas or subterranean beings] and gNyen [mountain spirits] beings were a part of the ancient Tibetan world. Twenty eight mountains in Tibet are the abode of these gods and goddesses. Many of these mountain deities have been incorporated in Buddhism as Dharmapalas, the protectors. Therefore, attention to these ancient myth associated with the Tibetan civilization is important. This study has discussed and made a comparative study of the Tibetan myths on origin of Tibetans, and its first king based on Bon and Buddhist scriptures in detail.

Religion is a set of belief and understanding by a group of people or community about the ways to achieve happiness and good fortune. It is also seen as a defense against harmful spirits and natural calamities. Origin of religion is myth, which is based on primitive belief about the way the things existed. Religion is a more sophisticated form of myth with established scriptures, doctrines and rituals. Religious beliefs play an important role in shaping the history and culture of the community. Bon religion and Buddhism together were the source of Tibetan culture. But the Tibet that the modern world knows is seen more as a Buddhist nation, a child of Indian civilization. But the truth is that Tibet had an indigenous faith or religion, which evolved to what is Bon today. Buddhism came to Tibet only in 7th century. It was Bon religion which sustained Tibetan civilization and guided the Yarlung kings in executing their royal duty. But this aspect of Tibetan religion and history has not been discussed widely. Bon religion is still not properly understood in the Tibetan community. Therefore, this research tried to explore areas of study on ancient Tibetan religion and culture focusing on defining Bon; its founder and discussing in detail how it spread and was sustained in Tibet.

As opposed to the myth and religion, history is supposed to be about the real happenings and events of the nation. There are some grey areas in Tibetan history, which needs to be discussed and addressed. Tibetans claim their civilization as very old and at par with India and other nations, but some of the old scriptures and the scholars tend to depict Tibetans and its civilization emerging only after the demise of Buddha Shakyamuni, and it had put the first king of Tibet at 127 BCE. This tantamount to say that while India with its sixteen Mahajanapadas^[6] [Solasa] are fighting sophisticated wars; where great teachers like Buddha and Mahavira have already appeared; when in Greece people held the first Olympic^[7]; when Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were discussing philosophy and preaching democracy^[8], and Alexander the Great^[9] was conquering Europe and Asia; Pamir plateau was still waiting for the Tibetans and the first king to appear. The origin and identity of the first Tibetan king Nyatri Tsanpo is so muddled up and extrapolated by both the Bon and Buddhist scholars to the extent that the real history is rendered nebulous. Primary works and major writings of the both the schools have been consulted meticulously and their postulations have been presented.

Literature review

This research study is based and relied on some of the authoritative works from both the schools of thought, and commentaries of Bon and Buddhist masters available in primary as well as secondary sources. Ven. Tenzin Namdak, Prof Samten Karmay and Ven. Namkhai Norbu are the three giants whose works contributed immensely in making Bon studies popular and alive, and in dispelling many misunderstanding about the religion. Samten Karmay's collection of articles on Bon studies in "The Arrow and the Spindle" was very helpful in looking at different aspect of the subject. The articles are very informative and original. He says, "The interconnexion between myths and rituals and the social functions of rituals are something that is related to cultural life in traditional societies."^[10], and has written extensively on the ancient myths and rituals. Tenzin Namdak has in his book "sNga rabs bod kyi byung ba bjod pa" [An Early History Tibet According to Bon], provided good information on Bon sources and their account of Tibetan history, culture and language. Professor Namkhai Norbu has through his books: The Necklace of dZi, Drung, Deu and Bon; gTam Nor bu'i rdo zhal and The Light of Kailash, has tried to reach the young Tibetans and scholars to secure their attention to the true root of Tibetan civilization. His works are very scholarly and provocative. Sharza Tashi Gyaltsan's "Legs bshad mZod" carries good information on the history of Bon, its origin, raise and decline. References are made from Bon texts like, mDo 'dus, gZer mig, Nyi sdron, sGrags pa gling grags, mZod phug, Srid rgayud etc.

From the Buddhist primary sources, Nyangral Nyima Woser's Chos 'byung, Kachem Kakholma and Khas pa deu's rGya bod kyi chos 'byung are some of the old texts with rich information on Tibetan religious history. Kachem Kakholma text has been widely referred to by the later Tibetan authors to write their own version of Tibetan history. Bu ston chos 'byung, 'Gos Lotsaba gZhon nu pal's Deb ther sngon po, and bShad mzod yid bzhin norbu by Don dam sma ba'i seng ge provided good information about the origin of Tibetans and the first king Nyatri Tsanpo. Khas pa'i dga' ston by dPa' bo tsug lag 'phring ba, rGyal rab gsal ba'i me long by Sakya Sonam and Fifth Dalai Lama's dPyid kyi rgyal mo'i glu dyangs proved helpful in understanding how the early myth evolved and how it has been interpreted by the later scholars.

Now, among the modern scholars in Tibet, writings by Chaphel on Tibetan history, g.Yang mo tso's gNya' khri btsan po zhib 'jugs, were very helpful in looking at the traditional theories from different angle. 'Bri gung skyab mgon's "Bod btsan po's rgyal rabs" is a great contribution, he has compiled the relevant Tunhuang documents on Tibetan kings and explained the archaic language.

A good attempt has been made to arrange the chronology of the Tibetan kings in a more logical order. Shakappa's Tibet a Political history was informative and it also helped greatly in trying to see how the modern Tibetan aristocrats see Tibetan history. Many Western scholars have also made great contribution in this area of Tibetan studies. David Snell Grove's "Nine Ways of Bon", Eric Haarh's "Yarlung Dynasty", and J. V. Bellezza's "Divine Dyads Ancient Civilization in Tibet" were very informative and helpful. Scholars like Per Kavern, Seigbert Hummel, Dan Martin etc have made good contribution in opening the door of Bon study to the non-Tibetan scholars. Nebesky Wojkowitz's Oracle and Demons of Tibet, and Tibetan Religious Dances proved very informative and helpful in studying the Tibetan deities.

The significance of the study

The significance of the study is that it will bring alive and present the early myth, religion and history of Tibet. The existing myth, religion and history shall be re-evaluated for the benefit of presenting a more logical version based on early Bon texts and scriptures. The study will render a new perspective to look at some grey areas in Tibetan history. Tibetan civilization has been shaped by the indigenous Bon religion and Buddhism from India. Pre-Bon and Yungdrung Bon religion and values dominated the early Tibetan society. With the arrival of Buddhism in 7th century, the native and foreign religion experienced friction initially. But later they shared many values along the up-gradations and degradations of their coexistence. Bon religion and values gave Tibetans a unique culture and ancient identity. Buddhism from India contributed greatly in further enriching the religion and culture of the land. However, some elements of extreme obsession and fanaticism from both sides obfuscated the original values and history of the land.

While the Buddhists ascribed Tibetan civilization to India, the followers of Bon claimed Tagzig Olmolungring as the source, and scholars identify this land to Persia^[11]. In this way, as the things of native origin were looked down upon and castigated, indigenous religious and cultural values were lost. This has greatly contributed to distort the original identity of the land and its history. Tibetan's origin myth, Zhangzhung civilization, the first king of Tibet and its chronology, Tibetan writing system etc are some areas where we need to explore to present a more rational postulation. Therefore, the significance of the study lies in the fact that it will present a new angle to look at Tibetan civilization and accord the native values its rightful place in the Tibetan studies.

Scope of the study and its limitations

The study has concentrated on a few areas in Tibetan history where re-evaluation is found necessary to present the Tibetan history in a more logical term. a) Origin myth: there are different theories explaining the origin of Tibetan race and Tibetan royal lineages. Although the version of Avaloketishvara's Bodhisattva monkey and rock ogress is ubiquitous, native version of cosmic egg has not been appreciated duly. b) Zhangzhung civilization: Not much has come out about the existence of this civilization, which has greatly influenced not only Tibet but the neighboring countries along the Himalayan belts. c) Bon religion: the religion is greatly misunderstood in Tibetan community because of the persecution it suffered in early period of Buddhist supremacy. As an extension to the article published on Bon by the author in Tibet Journal^[12], this study is a sincere attempt to explain and clear the misunderstanding on the subject. d) The origin of the first king of Tibet has been so mixed up in myth and religion that it has obfuscated the historicity of the king. e) Writing system: Tibetan historians have maintained that writing system came in Tibet only in 7th century when King Srongtsan Gampo's minister Thonmi Sambhota created Tibetan writing system based on Indian script. But there are historical^[13] and archaeological finding that indicates the existence of writing system in Tibet much before that.

Although, there are many areas where the origin of Tibetan religious and secular culture needs to be re-evaluated but this study is limited just to the above mentioned areas. Some reference have been made briefly to suggest further research into these areas for better understating of Tibetan civilization. Such as; Sowa Rig-pa, a Tibetan healing system, which is said to be taught by dPyad bu khri shes, the eldest son of Tonpa Shenrab, has its source in 'Bum bzhi text. But this fact has not been taken in by many scholars in describing the origin of Tibetan healing system. Same is the case with Tibetan Astrology.

Research questions

Does Tibet have any indigenous myth, religion and history before 7th century CE? If yes, what are they and why they have not been discussed? In most of the Tibetan works and literatures, it has been shown that the real Tibetan civilization started from the 7th century only. Not much is known or discussed about the pre-7th century Tibet. What little discussion found on the subject too were not in alignment with the time and reasoning. Western scholar like L.A. Waddell has written, "Tibet emerges from barbaric darkness only with the dawn of its Buddhism, in the seventh century of our era. Tibetan history, such as there is -and there is none at all before its Buddhist era, nor little worthy of the name till about the eleventh century.."^[14]

Such writings are great misinformation about Tibet and its civilization.

Research hypothesis

Contrary to the popular belief, the research hypothesis here is that the myth, religion and history of Tibet dates back to 1000 BC or before, and the first king Nyatri Tsanpo appeared much before 127 BC and he was of Tibetan origin. There was an ancient Zhangzhung civilization which greatly influenced Tibet and the neighboring countries along the Himalayan ranges. The 33rd King Srongtsan Gampo lived for 82 years, and the error in Earth-ox year of 569 AD with Earthox year of 629 AD was the cause of 60-years difference in occurring in Tibetan historical chronology. There existed a writing system in Tibet before 7th century CE.

Research methodology

Best effort has been made to analyze the primary and secondary materials through library method, field survey and interviews. Authoritative ancient manuscripts, scriptures and books written by Tibetan and non-Tibetan scholars have been referred and consulted. The journey of this research began with the understanding of the conventional belief and history prevalent in Tibetan society, followed by analysis if these beliefs and historical narration stands the test of time, sourcing out referential ancient texts, interviewing scholars and Lamas. Finally compiling all the acquired references to bring alive the beliefs and historical narration which are evidential and more scientific. Tunhaung manuscripts [dating from 7th to 10th century] discovered in 1899 CE proved very helpful. Primary source of references in Tibetan scriptures, manuscripts and books was given priority. Three authoritative Bonpo scriptures, mdo dus, gzer mig and gzi brjid were given due attention to study the Bonpo version of Tibetan religious culture. These three scriptures are the short, medium and long version of life history of Tonpa Shenrab, the founder of Bon religion. Although, early Tibetan works and scriptures constitute the primary sources of information, some works in English western scholars and Tibetans have also contributed greatly in the study^[15].

Menri Monastery in Dolanji, Himachal Pradesh, is the main seat of Bonpo establishment in India. Interviews and guidance from the 33rd Menri Trizin (late), and Lobpon Thinlay Nyima were very helpful and informative. The library at the monastery has vast material on Tibetan studies, from where most of the primary sources of early Tibetan texts and manuscripts came. Visit to Triten Norbutse Monastery in Nepal and interview with Ven Tenzin Namdak proved productive and inspiring. Interviewing the learned Tibetan Lamas, scholars and lay people about their experience and opinion on the subject was an eye opener. Library of Tibetan Works & Archives in Dharamsala proved great source of information. Tibet House library and my brief study under Geshe Dorjee Damdul have been very beneficial and enlightening.

Chapterization

The dissertation has seven chapters excluding Introduction and Conclusion as follows:

1) The Origin Myth: There are different theories explaining the origin of Tibetan race and Tibetan royal lineages. The Bodhisattva monkey and a rock-ogress version is well known. Native version of cosmic egg which has not been known widely has been explored in detail.

2) Zhangzhung civilization: Not much has come out about the existence of this civilization, which has greatly influenced not only Tibet but the neighboring countries along the Himalayan belts. Geographical extent of Zhangzhung and its 18 Kings of Bya ru can crown have been discussed.

3) The First king of Tibet, Nyatri Tsanpo: The origin of the first king of Tibet has been so mixed up in myth and religion that it has obfuscated the historicity of the king. The three traditional theories of bsGrags pa Bon lugs of Bon version, gSang ba chos lugs of Buddhist version and Yang gsang the'u rang lugs have been explored and conclusion made.

4) 33rd King Srongtsan Gampo: Scholars differs on how long the legendary king lived (33 years or 82 years), and the time period. Detail analysis of time and circumstances surrounding the King has been discussed and logical conclusion made.

5) Tibetan writing system: It is maintained that writing system came to Tibet only in 7th century. Thonmi Sambhota created Tibetan script based on Indian script. But there are historical^[16] and archaeological finding that indicates the existence of writing system in Tibet much before that.

6) Tonpa Shenrab and the Bon Religion: Bon religion is greatly misunderstood because of the persecution it suffered in early period of Buddhist supremacy. As an extension to the article published on Bon by the author in Tibet Journal^[17], attempts have been made to further explain and dispel the misunderstanding on the subject.

7) Buddhism in Tibet: Buddhism in general and the salient features of Vajrayana Buddhism in particular has been discussed. The thesis finally sums up its conclusion in the end and appends the dissertation with a bibliography of the books referred or cited.

Conclusion

Conclusion drawn from this study is that the major aspect of Tibetan myth and religion and some aspect of its history have not been depicted as it should have been. The popular Tibetan origin myth that Tibet and Tibetans came after the enlightenment of Buddha has failed to stand the test of the time. Jampal Tsagyu, the text on which Drukpa Kunkhyen based his statement, in fact does not touch anything about Tibet and Tibetans. Origin of the first Tibetan king Nyatri Tsanpo as an Indian Shakya king or the descendants of Pandava or Kauravas of Mahabharata too has been rendered invalid. Existence of more reliable native theory of origin myth of cosmic egg and the first king as the descendant of god has been discussed. Chronology of the Tibetan kings with Nyatri Tsanpo at 127 BCE does not go well to justify the existence of 43 Kings of Yarlung dynasty. The study has found it more reasonable and scientific to put Nyatri Tsanpo beyond 127 BCE and Srongtsan's birth at 569 AD. The study has shown the importance of Zhangzhung and the religion to prove the existence of advanced civilization in Tibet since early time. Origin of Tibetan script and writing system has been demonstrated from a new angle to encourage new perspective to look at the subject. In a nutshell, the study has worked on certain grey areas in

Tibetan myth, religion and history and has come up with a more reasonable and scientific proposition. Some strong working hypothesis has been achieved through the study and it has also offered more space for the scholars to explore further into these subjects.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

1) Tenzin Namdak, sNga rabs bod kyi byung wa bjod pa [An early history of Tibet], p-189, 2) Jonh V. Bellezza, gShen-rab Myi-bo -His life and times according to Tibet's earliest literary sources

[2]:

Tibetan Lived in Himalayas Year Round Up to 12,000 Years Ago by Laura Geggel, Senior Writer / Jan 5, 2017. Live Science. [http://www.livescience.com/57403-humans-inhabited-tibet-mountains-earlier-than-thought.html]

[3]:

Bod-kyi lo-rgyus bgro-glen, LTWA, p-1ix

[4]:

1) Kun mKhyen Nyi ma, bsTan rtsis nor phreng, p-72, 2) dBra Kyung pa. Bon sgo 11, 1998. p-61

[5]:

Namkhai Norbu, Drung, Deu and Bon, p-156 ff

[6]:

Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, p-260~263

[7]:

776 BC, https://www.penn.museum/sites/olympics/olympicorigins.shtml

[8]:

Socrates -470 BC, Plato -428 BC, and Aristotle -382 BC: https://sites.psu.edu/rclperdue/2014/09/19/the-big-threeof-greek-philosophy-socrates-plato-and-aristotle/

[9]:

Born -356 BC, Jacob Abbot, Alexander the Great

[10]:

Samten Karmay, The Arrow and the Spindle, p-288

[11]:

Samten G Karmey, The Arrow and the Spindle, pp 104

[12]:

Tibet Journal, Vol. XLI, No.2, Autumn/Winter 2016, p-63

[13]:

Namkahi Norbu, The Necklace of dZi, Information of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, pp 43, Dharamsala, India. 1984 Reprint.

[14]:

L.A. Waddell, Buddhism & Lamaism of Tibet, p-18, Gaurav Publishing House, Delhi, Reprint 1993

[15]:

See 1.04 Literature Review

[16]:

Namkahi Norbu, The Necklace of dZi, Information of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, pp 43, Dharamsala, India. 1984 Reprint.

[17]:

Tibet Journal, Vol. XLI, No.2, Autumn/Winter 2016, p-63