Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh (early history)

by Prakash Narayan | 2011 | 63,517 words

This study deals with the history of Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh (Northern India) taking into account the history and philosophy of Buddhism. Since the sixth century B.C. many developments took place in these regions, in terms of society, economic life, religion and arts and crafts....

Other sects at the time of the Buddha

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The Buddhists had many of their roots in the wider paribbajaka culture and hence had a sense of identity with the annatithiyas as they were part of that culture. There are various similarities between the Buddhists and the paribbajakas as pointed out by the Majjhima Nikaya^[1], which hints that it was difficult to find the difference between the two, even through the discerning eyes of other paribbajakas. The Buddhists adopted the word bhikkhu, which denotes receiver of alms.^[2] The central characteristic by which a recluse was defined was this aspect of the bhikkhus’ existence. The samana was treated as one who lived on food provided by others^[3] by the Digha Nikaya. Nevertheless, the differentiation between the bhikkhu and the ordinary beggar was made by the sacramental character of the former’s begging, which was not merely a means of subsistence but the outward token of an inner state of a person who had renounced the world.^[4]

The identification of men of this community was realized by their begging bowls, the visible symbol of the mendicant’s calling. Someone who had released himself from social ties and economic tasks to pursue certain goals was recognized as the samana or the paribbajaka. The wider society, by and large, endorsed these goals, although the phenomenon of renunciation did have its critics. A brahmana questioned on the non-economic life of the bhikkhu in the Kasibharadvaja sutta. The Buddha brahmanạ Kasibharadvaja insisted the Buddha to work and sustain himself, instead of begging. The Jaina texts also depict the humiliation which a monk had to face in his daily alms round.^[5]

While some of the paribbajakas wandered alone, others had small band of followers, but they participated actively in the tradition of debate. The Buddha associated himself with other thinkers through various stages, two of whom he publicly acknowledged as having helped him to arrive upon final enlightenment.^[6] Various paribbajakas usually greeted to inquire about the specific dhamma and the teacher (sattha) that they followed. Just as the begging bowl was the outer sign of the almsman’s calling, the dhamma was its inner symbol.^[7]

The existence of debating halls (Kutagarasala) and special parks or orchards were provided in the tradition of debate where the samanas could stay in the course of their travels. Paribbajakas collecting in a wanderer’s park for the period of the rains was mentioned in the Majjhima Nikaya. A discussion on the eminence of each set was generated by this. The respective leaders (ganacariyo) were referred to as bhagava by all the Paribbajakas, which was also used for the Buddha by his followers.^[8] The regular interaction in common meeting ground encouraged a movement of ideas from one group to another and fostered the basic culture which all the groups seem to have shared.

The important feature of the samana culture was asceticism, and the samana tradition as a whole was affected in varying degrees by asceticism. This is most striking in the case of the Carvakas or the Lokayatas, and even the ajivikas whose philosophies should logically have discounted the need for asceticism. Both sects have been characterized by Jayatilleke as Rationalist, as distinct from the Traditionalists and the Experientialists.^[9] The Rationalists derived their knowledge from reasoning and speculation without any claims to extra-sensory perception. The Lokayatas, in particular, rejected idealist metaphysics and treated the physical world as the only reality. The physical world functioned according to a set pattern which they called ‘inherent nature’ (svabhava).^[10] Human life was entirely determined by this physical law, and physical law was nothing but a by product of the four great material elements (mahabhutas) earth, water, fire, and air, and hence could not exert any influence on the physical personality or the outside world. Discourse on morality was meaningless since the destruction of the physical personality meant that man was entirely cut off and annihilated after death. There was no after-life and no karma which affirmed continuity of action in the form of consequence. The ajivikas represented another form of natural determinism, but they combined materialism with a theory of natural evolution. The ajivikas believed in continuity and survival, but this took the form of evolutionary transmigration with a predetermined end.

According to Basham, the ajivikas represent a thorough recognition of the orderliness of nature in the principle of niyati (impersonal cosmic principle) which was the only determining factor in the universe.^[11] Despite their avowed rejection of spiritual phenomena, adherents of the two schools have been included among the sects subscribing to the renunciation tradition, and this has been the puzzle of Indian philosophy. Their inclusion is indicative of their adherence to the broad samana culture which was important for any group wanting to propagate its philosophy. It was only in samana^[12] culture that the mendicant philosophers were mobile, met others like themselves and participated in philosophical debates. This was the only way in which a philosophy could be propagated in the sixth century B.C. The wandering tradition was more important than asceticism, and the latter became an aspect of the culture of any philosophical group because it was an integral part of the former.