Part 4 - Scope of our work

Current state of research and studies has already furnished a lot of useful data on our two select settlement zones, particularly on Vārāṇasī sector. They have immensely enriched our knowledge about the settlement pattern in these two zones. But they are mostly in the fashion of survey of a single site, cluster of sites and even an entire chrono-cultural zone. We are examining two important early historic urban nodal points with their cultural impact felt over an extensive region and a long period of time. They may be taken as case studies to address the bigger issue of rise of complex settlement order in the early historic Gaṅgā plains. We are looking at the various levels of their interactions with their hinterlands, satellite settlements, other similar ranking settlements and nodal points within or outside their cultural extent. Our study is not restricted to the question of emergence of urban cum nodal points but the course of their existence, alterations in their position and their functionality. The scope of our research spans over the issues of prehistoric human colonization of the area concerned, their mode of socio-economic operations, growth of political entities and urban sites for the performance of different roles. In the second layer we observe how by drawing the vital settlement logic secondary sites grow near these sites and we aim to define the precise nature of their relation over this broad time frame that may not remain the same over this time frame. Thus we are also noting the changing fate of settlements that also alter their mutual relations. Thus we are attempting to take note of an organic settlement pattern of a very historically rich region of the middle Gaṅgā plains through the case studies of urban sites of Rājagṛha-Nālandā and Vārāṇasī-Sārnāth.

Largely depended on archaeological sources and studies, we are interested to trace the historical process of settlement dynamics in our chosen geo-cultural pockets in the middle Gaṅgā plains from the early phase to the Gupta period. We look at the discourse from the point of view of human activities that gave birth to their settlements, their requirements shaped their destinies. This leads to the promotion of sites to the level of urbanity or even turned them into nodal points performing roles that catered to a larger area, much beyond their physical limits. So the settlements could be promoted from lower to higher levels, if it had the capacity to serve human requirements in a specific period. Similarly decline of the settlement was also much due to the shifting orientation of human interest. So for our study human factor seems to be central theme or the driving force. Their choice of a geographical zone was of course guided by ecological factors like availability of resources, climatic conditions etc. conversion of resources into economic terms and their proper management, however depends on the political power, authority and an administrative seat. This speaks of a higher level of arrangement, only reflected by state machinery. With the entrance into the political domain, sites with their specific role assumed a character. Performing multiple roles puts the settlement sites to a complex network of relations and different factors played crucial role in maintaining their status. Loss of any of such logics can be fatal for the settlement’s identity and existence. Sometimes, settlements showed surprising abilities to adjust with changing situation. But this was not true for all. To understand the process we had to cover the time frame of the beginning of settlement from the prehistoric times and up till the time when their full format took shape, till the high watermark of cultural pursuits during the Gupta era. Our aim to explore different facets of settlement paradigms through these two supreme urban models and their satellites of the middle Gaṅgā plains, Rājagṛha-Nālandā and Vārāṇasī-Sārnāth, reveals two completely different types of settlement logics.

In our present work, there are nine chapters. Of them, first four chapters deal with the rise and characterization of nodal points in the south Bihar, corresponding to ancient Magadha mahājanapada and the inter settlement relation prevailing and changing over time. Chapter 1, entitled Origin of Territorial State and Nodal Demographic Centres in the Middle Gaṅgā Plains (South Bihar): the Case Study of Rājagṛha, deals with the origin of first settlements in this area in the Neolithic or even earlier Mesolithic times and traces the evolution of settlements of higher orders from subsistent farming cultures to emergence of urban centres. In fact in this region foci of urban centres comprising Campā circle, Rajgir circle and Pāṭaliputra circle grew up. Our approach is to view Rājagṛha’s position in respect to the urban ambience created by several similar and contemporaneous urban points. In the second portion of this chapter, we have tried to look for the geographical setting of Rājagṛha that rendered it the privileged position of being the administrative seat and capital of Magadha in the early phase. The natural defence provided by the hills surrounding Rājagṛha was a source of security to the capital or royal seat of the nascent Magadha. Moreover its location at the juncture of trade routes or at their ends and physical closeness to Chotanagpur plateau, a potent mine area offered the prerequisites for the growth of nodal points in charge of exploitation and distribution of raw materials and goods.

In the next chapter named Origin and function of Rājagṛha as an Urban Centre and a Seat of Monarchy has three sections. In the first section we look at the physically detectable structural remains that comprise the archaeological evidence to the urban features of the site. The cyclopean wall running over the hills is of foremost importance as it points to the defence preparations supplemented by bastions and watch towers. Other structures were often of religious or mythical character. In the second section we have traced the history of Rājagṛha’s position as an administrative seat under centralized monarchy not only in the historical times but also under Jarāsandha of Mahābhārata and purāṇic fame. In both cases Rājagṛha’s position in the hillock appears to be of utmost importance that provided a strategic advantage to Magadha’s early rulers. Position of Rājagṛha in a developing religious topography of the region associated with the rising non-Vedic religious faiths was the main theme of our last segment in this chapter. We have tried to locate the major religious nodes formed over this region with Rājagṛha-Nāalandā and Bodhgaya as major points. Numerous small to medium religious sites grew around these major Buddhist sites, making the region thickly dotted with religious sites and making the place overtly religious in nature. Archaeological evidences amply reflect religious structures of varied sizes and nature. Nālandā, being the Buddhist academic cum monastic site stands out from the rest.

Nālandā’s history to rise was the main focal point of the third chaper-Nālandā: Evidence for the Rise and Progress of the Settlement. It also has three portions. Starting from an ordinary rural site, close to Rājagṛha oft visited by the Buddha and the crew its rise to the status of a Buddhist university site was amazing. This was the content of the first part of this chapter. In the second part we have made a survey of the archaeological site of the ancient university thoroughly. The last portion is all about the epigraphic evidences showing the growth of Nālandā through bumper royal donations from the Gupta period to much later. The inscriptions and seas uncovered Nālandā’s astounding transformation from just a university site to a a multi functional one with its assumption of various administrative duties.

Chapter 4–Rationale and Functioning of settlements in early historic Gaṅgā plains: Reviewing the Rājagṛha-Nālandā Zone is the concluding chapter for the first settlement zone that looks at and sums up settlement growth, taking up of their respective shapes and inter-settlement relations and their changed relation, within specific historical contexts. In this chapter we have focused on mutual relations of Rājagṛha and Nālandā, where Rājagṛha was the principal site with Nālandā as a subsidiary site in the early phase, followed by a complete reversal of their roles. Rājagṛha fell from its political importance and stood as a pilgrimage point of different sects, predominated by Buddhism.

Chapter V, named Formative Stage of Cultures in the Early History of the Middle Gaṅgā Plains: (Eastern Uttar Pradesh): Rise of Vārāṇasī as the Nodal Centre is the introductory chapter for the second settlement zone of Vārāṇasī-Sārnāth. The geographical orbit of the pivotal nodal sites of Vārāṇasī-Sārnāth was discussed from the angle of the mixed topography of the Vindhyas and the middle Gaṅgā plains. The region is characterized by the presence of small seasonal and perennial streams and ox bow lakes. Early farming sites grew up on their banks because fresh layer of alluvium was deposited by them and they fulfilled the water requirements of the early settlers. Compact farming cultures developed here, since the prehistoric Neolithic-Chalcolithic times. Numerous small and rural sites grew up along the dry palaeo channel of Basuhi, the Varuṇā and other small streams located very close to Vārāṇasī, which functioned variously and a greater settlement zone was created. We made a survey of some prominent and functionally important sites to understand the growth and functional character of this cultural zone. In this chapter we have focused on the topographic and ecological factors accounted for the concentration of dense population centres in large number and the growth of Vārāṇasī as the nodal centre.

Vārāṇasī’s growth and status as a nodal centre may be viewed from two angles. First is its economic rationale offered by an agricultural self-sufficiency and an allied handicraft industry achieved since the prehistoric times, was followed by a tremendous opportunity of trade provided by the Gaṅgā and the Vindhyan alignment of hills. These two strategic positions placed Vārāṇasī in a position to receive almost the whole amount of the Deccan bound traffic and to monopolise the entire trading nexus of this region. Serving as a principal trading port of the northern India in the early times, it certainly assumed a much bigger role than simply serving its immediate geographical zone. Thus it grew as a nodal centre with an essential trading character. In the second layer its position may also be viewed as an administrative seat of the Kāśī mahājanapada. From the Purāṇic descriptions the city it seems that the city was a stronghold of various indigenous pre-Aryan liṅga worshipping tribes. The purāṇas describe the conflict between the indigenous and the newcomers and an eventual compromise. Coming down to the historical times, Kāśī got entangled in clash with Kośala and then with Magadha and Kāśī did not fare well and subjugated to Magadha. Both Magadha and Kośala wanted to capture the port town of Vārāṇasī for its excellent trading links. We also have studied the archaeologically verifiable physical remains of the ancient city. Literary evidences, particularly the Jātakas reflect the urban cultural mood and people’s attachment to the city life. This forms the basic idea of the chapter VI named Vārāṇasī: Emergence of Urban Centre and Seat of administration.

The following chapter numbered VII is entitled Sārnāth: The Satellite Religious Centre. In the previous chapters we have discussed the neighbouring area of Vārāṇasī was dotted with small rural type settlements, mainly of economic and religious nature. Their relation to Vārāṇasī was both supportive and depending. While they performed some economic operations mainly for the urban clientele at Vārāṇasī, on their turn, they depended on the former for all facilities and urban amenities. Sārnāth’s rise as the chief cultural satellite of Vārāṇasī was viewed from this angle in this chapter. Vārāṇasī’s exposure to different cultures and education possibly had guided the Buddha to preach his first sermon to an educated and cultured audience. Aśoka was the first to make a conscious move to commemorate this event through erecting memorial structures and it began a process of making endowments to this monastic site up till the medieval times. We traced the process of Sārnāth’s growth through the structural remains made in different periods with royal and commoners’ favour.

Our concluding chapter on the second urban demographic nodal centres of Vārāṇasī–Sārnāth is Chapter VIII, named Vārāṇasī–Sārnāth: Inter Settlement Relations and Political Cultural Nexus is basically a review of the whole paradigm of settlement growth, assumptions of their character and functions and their mutual relations. We have tried to look at the centrality of the urban nodal point of Vārāṇasī–Sārnāth in a large geo-cultural zone, where the human settlement began from a very early time. We noted the progress of this urban nodal point from 600 BCE to the 3^rd century CE and their relation. Here we see unlike our first zone Sārnāth stood as the satellite of Vārāṇasī through the time frame of our study. Vārāṇasī itself went through several crises and upheavals and made various adjustments with regard to its functionality. Despite all, it always remained in the limelight, managed its status as the nodal point serving a vast region or even beyond. Depending upon Vārāṇasī, Sārnāth too maintained its relevance within this settlement zone and in the larger Buddhist world across time.

The last chapter is a general conclusion our thesis that aims to review the two important urban nodal foci within the early historic Gaṅgā plains. Located in the modern south Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh they shared a physical proximity and common cultural context of early historic urbanization, occurred mainly in the middle Gaṅgā plains. This chapter makes a revision of origin of settlements within this region and the specific context for urbanization and transformation towards being the nodal centres of our chosen sites. Thus this is a comparative study of the growth, function and status over time of two significant early historic nodal centres and also within their own zone vis- à-vis the satellites and the changed nature of their relations.

Thus, within the scope of our research we are trying to take a comprehensive look at different facets of the settlement paradigms within the time line of 6^th century BCE to 3^rd century CE through the case studies of Rājagṛha–Nālandā and Vārāṇasī–Sārnāth nuclei of urban cum nodal points.