The Marathi Drama

To understand Marathi Literature it is necessary to remember that the status it enjoyed in the successive stages of its development was far different from that of the literature of today. The earliest attempts at poetry and prose were largely due to the saints and prophets of Maharashtra. In his memorable contribution, on ‘The Rise of the Maratha Power’ Justice Ranade has traced the influence of the Maratha saints and prophets on the literature and the culture of the Maratha people. It was as sudden as it was brilliant, this revival of a philosophy of devotion, and of holy living. The names of Dyan-Dev, Tukaram, and Eknath, Dyaneshwar, Mahipathi, Moropant and Muketeswar, stand out prominently at the head of this movement. It is impossible to give at present either the chronological details or a critical survey of the literature of the age. But it would serve our purpose to begin our story at the stage when the mind of the people was yet in its infancy, so to say, and while it was struggling hard to maintain its independent character and with it, its genius, in spite of many vicissitudes; and truth to tell, if such a philosophy as that of Tukaram, or the verse of a Mahipati did appeal to the people, it must have been largely due to the status they enjoyed. The revolt of the Marathas against the tyranny and oppression of the Mohammedan rule, the new courtliness set up by Shivaji, in which Letters formed an integral and indispensable part, exalted a new ideal. Here was an opportunity under the new Hindu Raj, to express oneself, and obtain suitable recognition, with the result that apart from the devotional attitude which men had towards the writings of the saints and prophets, they came to have a real thirst for knowledge; then began the art of writing, for its own sake, and here we have the greatest departments of. literary activity, the beginning of modern Marathi prose and poetry, and then that of the Drama.

But the somewhat meteoric growth of the Maratha Empire, with its struggle for existence, and later on its position as a powerful Hindu unit struggling against the then great Power of Hindusthan, the Mughal Empire, hardly afforded either the impetus or the strength to maintain a literary or a cultural movement such as had its birth in the days of Shivaji. Every time it was war, and then the prospect of a flying camp. Where then was the time to develop a literature? And so it continued till we come to the rule of the Peshwas.

UNDER THE PESHWAS

The rule of the Peshwas is a landmark. Brought up under the traditions and the organised rule of the great King, Shivaji, the Peshwas for the first time succeeded in giving to

the nation a sense of security and physical well-being. During the hundred years of its existence, the rule of the Peshwas was as memorable as it was brilliant. The Court of Poona became the rendezvous for a galaxy of learned men, courtiers, diplomats and traders. It became the centre too of a brilliant display of wit, and valour. With their limited resources and despite the difficulties that surrounded them, the Peshwas did succeed in evolving a new order of society, which encouraged the study of religion, the study of literature and last but not the least, the growth of the Drama.

The Drama in Maharashtra was in its beginning a religious affair. Early in the seventeenth century, men took to staging at prominent festivals and on other holy days, some part of a God's life, suitable to the occasion. These were extraordinarily crude attempts at representation, and were generally enacted in the glare of torches which smoked and smoked until the whole atmosphere was reeking with the smell of the burning oil. And in the weird light of these torches, the stage presented no small display of men and things.

But the material required to get up a play was quite little indeed. A drop curtain of Alwan, a few dhoties, some brilliantly coloured sarees, two or three embroidered pieces of head-wear, and a lot of resin–these completed the outfit. Most of these plays originated in the Konkan, on the West Coast of Bombay, and were popularly styled as ‘Lalits.’ The ‘Lalits’ had neither the element of amusement, nor the art of speaking in a restrained manner, and the proper and sensible presentation of some subject or theme. They were on the other hand just a medley of coarse and not infrequently miserable, vulgar sentiments.

Side by side with the existence of these mystery or miracle plays, if we might so call them, arose the ‘tamashas’ at a later stage. They were largely the result of the Mussalmani influence and culture; and thus we have for the first time music introduced into these plays. The instruments generally employed were the drum and the ‘tun-tuni’^l and one would suppose they must have added not a little to the sense of enjoyment. Later on came the dances, and little boys were made to dance as well. These ‘tamashas’ were the order of the day during almost the whole of the peshwas’ regime. And the men who took part in such representations included many a respectable Brahmin at the Court of the Peshwas.

The rule of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao, was in several ways a memorable one. It was during his time that the Maratha Empire ceased to be a unit; and a general atmosphere of decadence and corruption spread over the land. Rao Baji, the Peshwa, was himself, inspite of his many lovable qualities, an indolent, pleasure-seeking man; and the Court of Poona soon was flooded with all types of men, adventurers, loafers, clever unscrupulous diplomats, politicians, and lastly women. Under such prosperous conditions and inducements, the early histrionic art of Maharashtra soon became a very lucrative profession to many. We have a very interesting account of such representations and the condition of the people in general from an old and well-known book–the ‘Kekavali.’ Says the writer:

"Owing to the impetus given to the foreigners and the adventurers in Poona, Rao Baji's court soon became the centre of attraction. To this court of debauchery and waste, flocked the Brahmins during the day; and were served with food and viands and delicacies which defied description. And in the evenings, no sooner was the twilight upon the landscape, than the lamps were lit–and at the Imperial Court, they made use of the attars of Persia to burn the wicks in, whilst all over the city, the pleasing sound of ‘Sanayis’ and ‘Chaughadas,’ and music filled the air. The Shilledars, soldiers and officers flocked to the ‘tamashas,’ and the Gondhlis became as popular as ever. Then came the women of the North, and for the first time the nautches became the object of public workshop."

So did the night pass away: and the last of the Peshwas slept happy in the thought that he had placed before the nation a new ideal–a newer life. And what Poona did, the rest of Maharashtra copied. The neighbouring cities of Satara, Vayee and others, introduced these ‘tamashas’–but oftentimes with an improvement: for men like the Brahmin Ramjoshi, hit upon combining amusement with instruction and we have in his themes, the first attempts at a play with a moral behind it.

Nor were the ‘Lalits’ or the ‘Tamashas’ alone the foundations of the early Marathi stage. There were a class of men styled the Gondhlis² who contributed a great deal to the growth of the primitive stage. They were as a rule mimicrists and their presentations differed from the ‘Lalits,’ in the sense that their themes had nothing to do with the Puranas or mythological details. They were caricatures and skits on the then prevailing order of society, and very clever skits they made too. Their songs were sung with great gusto and vigour and became very popular. We have it on record that a sort of mixed ‘tamashas’ took place at the Court of the Nizam, when thestory of Nana Fadnavis and Sawai Madhav Rau Peshwa was presented in all its pathos and detail. To be sure, Nana Fadnavis himself was living then on the banks of the Mula and Mutha at Poona, and it is an interesting speculation, as to what the great diplomat must have felt at the idea of such a representation at the Court of his cleverest enemy. The songs that were sung on these occasions took the form of Ballads or ‘Povadas’, as they are called in Marathi.

This was in brief the history of the stage in Maharashtra. From the year 1827, when the Maratha Empire ceased to exist, to the year 1842, when the first play appeared on the stage, were years of transition and of a peculiar inaction as well. The state of the country was none too pleasant or settled, to induce men to think about new ways in literature or art.

MR. BHAVE AND NEW ORDER

But the year 1842 witnessed a new order of things. The first Drama in Marathi announced itself on the stage in the year 1842, at Sangli, in one of the minor Southern Maratha states. The play enacted was somewhat on the lines of ‘Krishna Parijata’ and similar plays in Karnatak. It was a very crude attempt, in spite of some excellent singing. The men who went to witness the play were tired. The language was strange, and the actions of the actors meaningless. But the chief of Sangli, the Shreemant Patwardhan, thought after witnessing the play, that it could be improved with proper setting and stage effects, and hit upon the idea of asking a Mr. Bhave of the Chief's household to produce a play in Marathi; and a little dramatic company was started forthwith, under the patronage of its Chief. The first regular Marathi play ‘Seeta-Swayamwar’ was produced in the year 1843.

But like all other attempts at reformation, it proved abortive–and the members of the Bhave Company were treated as social outcastes. This was as it should be; for educated public opinion in those days was decidedly against dramatic representation and much more against respectable Brahmins taking part in the plays. Many and bitter were the controversies that arose and a council of Shastris and Pundits was called upon to decide the issue. But luckily for Mr. Bhave and for the art, the revered Gopinath Shastri Agashe proved that the shastras laid no restrictions on men and that there could never be any breach of either tradition or custom if they took part in a play. So Mr. Bhave prospered; and his theatre was filled with a new generation of men who began to see in the Drama an outlet to their emotions, and a new expression for a strange yearning within. Mr. Bhave's arrangement of his plays was somewhat on these lines.

First to enter was the ‘Sutra-Dhara’ or the story-teller, who would announce the play in his peculiar way, in the course of a conversation with his wife. Then would enter the ‘Vidushaka’ or the Jester, who danced, sang and performed various acts of indiscretion and fun; the prayers followed and finally the invocation to Saraswati.

The play then commenced and ran its course. It was begun late in the night,–and would last quite late, even after the sunrise of the next day: and it was not an uncommon sight to see at these performances, men shaved and painted in a mysterious blue colour (for such were the Gods!), with sunken eyes and a wretched expression on their faces; and the patient audience sat on reveling in the representation and then would go to bed as the sun came up. The play usually consisted of half a dozen acts, each act being divided into convenient scenes. Most of the themes were Pouranic. Thus we had invariably a Durbar of the Gods, an assembly of the Rakshasas, and their respective consorts. The action of the play lay in the several plans which the Gods had under consideration to exterminate the Rakshasas or vice- versa. Sometimes the Gods regaled their audiences with music as well, or the Rakshasas exhibited their brute strength.

All this meant invariably a great deal of shouting and a shouting of a confused type as well. There was weeping also; and very pitiable in its intensity too. The home of the Gods usually consisted of a couple of broken second-hand settees, and evil looking chairs of a very pronounced ‘Mlecha’ type. On these did the Gods sit and dispense justice and the sense of their bliss to poor mortals, whilst their arch-enemies, the Rakshasas, shouted and raved on the same chairs which the well-meaning Gods had vacated after the previous scenes! Then came the women who were mostly men dressed as women; either weeping or singing as occasion offered.

But the person who mattered most was the Vidushak, or the Jester. Sometimes he performed all kinds of fantastic tasks. Thus he had to be a prompter, or to pick up the ear-ring of the Hero–or sometimes even his own moustache. This plan was almost the same in all Pauranic plays. But then it was a big jump from the world of ‘tamashas’ and Lalits and the people enjoyed it all. Mr. Bhave made his pile in the course of the eight years of the patronage he received from the Chief of Sangli, and later on towards the year 1852 emigrated to Kolhapur after the death of his patron, and from there to the ever-alluring city of Poona.

Poona had many great men living at this time. The names of Kero Lakshman Chattre and Krishna Shastri Chiplonkar were names of great distinction and merit, and introduction to them meant sure recognition and appreciation of talent. To these good generous men Mr. Bhave went and they did a great deal to help him and to popularise his plays.

Mr. Bhave later went to Bombay. Bombay was yet a little provincial town and the first English Companies had just begun visiting the city. There was a solitary theatre at Grant Road which belonged to Nana Shankarshet where the English Theatricals often staged their plays. The rent was prohibitive and introductions well-nigh impossible but Mr. Bhave tried to get the use of the theatre for his performances. After a great deal of persuasion, the theatre was rented and Mr. Bhave produced his first play in Bombay. His net loss was Rs. 250. But it was in a great measure compensated for by the co-operation and encouragement he received from some very prominent men of Bombay like Dr. Bhau Daji, Nana Shankarshet himself and Sir Jamshetjee Jeejeebhoy. So much so that Mr. Bhave succeeded in getting the private secretary to the Governor interested in the play, and we note–not without a sense of unmixed pleasure and joy–that he promised Mr. Bhave many introductions to his friends in England, and help as well! But Mr. Bhave was too nervous to cross the ‘seven seas’ and invite the odium of his community. So he refused with great regret the generous offer of the secretary and thus lost a good chance of studying the histrionic art at first hand in England.

Mr. Bhave died in the year 1901, and his death was followed by the starting of numerous dramatic companies all over Maharashtra.

AMATEUR THEATRICALS

The establishment of the University at Bombay, and the very rapid growth of educational institutions helped too the spread of the dramatic societies and companies in Maharashtra. Amateur theatricals became the order of the day at many of the colleges in Bombay and in Poona. We learn that at the Elphinstone College in Bombay, the "Kalidas Elphinstone Society" was started, and it staged for the first time an Indian play–the ‘Shakuntala’ of Kalidasa. A stupendous amount of money and energy was spent by its organizers on this account. 400 Rupees' worth of Sal tree bark had been imported from Madras alone, while three wagon loads of flowers and evergreens had been despatched from the gardens at Poona.

The arrival of Miss. Elsia May and Player Clough at Bombay, and their subsequent presentation at the Deccan College in Poona, aroused considerable interest and attempts were made to stage plays in which the characters concerned appeared in their natural colors, i.e., without painting or powdering their faces. Encouraged by their success, these amateurs tried their skill at Sanskrit dramas as well, ‘Mrichakatika’, ‘Mudra Rakshasa’ and some other plays being found very popular.

Then carne the age of translation. Shakespeare and Moliere and Sheridan were rendered into Marathi–and they were very well done too. Improvements were effected in the stage-craft itself, and under the genial guidance of a man like Mr. Candy of the Rajaram College at Kolhapur, youngmen began to take an active part in such presentations.

The Shakespearean translations became quite popular –and the ‘Shahunagarwasi Mandali’ was considered to be a great company of actors. ‘Tratika’ or ‘The Taming of the Shrew’ was a great favourite of the public of the day; so also was ‘Hamlet.’ Both these plays were exquisitely rendered into Marathi, and the actors like Messrs. Ganpat Rao and Balwant Rao thrilled the audiences by their wonderful feeling and presentation; Sheridan's ‘Duenna’ was also translated by Mr. Modak.

These were followed in quick succession by historical plays; and for the time being, the stories of the late Rani Lakshmi Bai, or the murder of the Peshwa Narayan Rao, found extraordinarily appreciative audiences both at the theatres of Poona and Bombay. Plays like ‘Baji Rao Mastani,’ ‘Baji Desphande,’ ‘Rana Bheemdev’ found favour too, and the Congress of the year 1889 was the proud recipient of the proceeds from one such play! Meanwhile the work of the social reformers had reached a stage when it could no longer be ignored. The ‘useless’ products of the Universities, the early marriages, the widow remarriages, education of girls, all these became the ground, as it were, for many a social play. The whisky bottle and its evil too came in for a good share, and we have a formidable list of plays and farces, which dealt with one or more of these social evils. Indeed, we are told that a skit on the Age of Consent Bill of 1891, was itself the theme of a very interesting social play. So far all these plays had been written in prose alone. Music was introduced for the first time on the Marathi stage by Sokar Bapuji Trilokekar. This was indeed an innovation and became exceedingly popular. The famous Kirloskar Company was now formed, and for about a quarter of a century the plays of this Company became exceedingly popular. Anna Kirloskar, the founder of the above Company, was a great musician and an artist in the real sense of the word. His plays and music were the order of the day. Mr. Kolhatkar joined this Company a few years later and Poona was always full when the Kirloskar Brothers' Company were announced.

Most of Kirloskar's plays were Pauranic; but they make excellent reading. The music was perfect and never out of place. His plays like ‘Ramarajya-viyoga’, ‘Shakuntal,’ ‘Saubhadra,’ were charming to a degree and they are acted even today, being as popular as they were thirty years ago.

The passing of Kirloskar was followed by the establishment of the new Companies of Mr. Deval and Mr. Bhonsle; and until recently, by numerous other Companies where the names of actors like Bal Gandharva, Pendharkar, Master Krishna, have exerted a singular charm on the mind of the Maratha people. All over Maharashtra one can hear the music of these famous actors sung by the street-boy as well as the young wife at home, so popular have they become and such an appeal do they make, the exquisite melodies of these men. The Drama in Maharashtra has become an important factor in the literature of the land and an index of the growth and culture of a nation.

Acknowledgments:

Ranade: ‘The Rise of the Maratha Power.’

Moropant: ‘Kekavali’ Introduction to

Mr. Kulkarni: ‘The Marathi Stage’

The Quarterly Journals of the Sarvajanik Sabha, Poona

The Sudharak: dated 12th October, 1903.

1 Tun-tuni, a crude stringed instrument consisting of a piece of thin wire stretched tightly across a pole. Oftentimes a gourd was attached as a sound-box.

2 Sorry representatives of this class of men are still to be seen wandering across the Mahratta country. They are a gipsy tribe, talk very coarse Marathi, and are to be seen early of a morning haunting respectable doorsteps, in the guise of fortune-tellers.