Urbanization and expansion of Agriculture

The main factor in the new phenomenon of urbanization included the expansion of agriculture and as a result, of the economy as a whole. The existence of cities is not possible without some form of agricultural surplus and it has been pointed out that there was some degree of movement in food-grains along with other items of trade^[1] during this period. In fact, the emergence of money itself has been related to the exchange or barter of agricultural produce. As far as the opinion of Joshi is concerned, the term for currency in early India, Karshapana or Kahapana, is derived from the verbal roots krish (to cultivate) and pan (to exchange, barter or bargain).^[2]

A more complex economy with a greater degree of specialization was emerging and the metallic money was appearing in the form of punch-marked coins also subscribing to the expansion of trade. The use of terms such as sangha, gana, seni and puga^[3] proves the beginning of the corporate organization of trade. The establishment of trade routes were seen and were known as vanippathas^[4], and caravan traffic emerged^[5] as well. The growing up of a number of market towns along the trades routes formed linking points. A verse in the sutta nipata has been emphasized by joshi which specifies a number of market towns along the trades route associating Assaka with Uagadha.^[6] The connection of a number of similar trade routes to the major trading centres, for example, the route to the south from Rajagadha^[7], provided a decided stimulus to urbanization.^[8] It has been discussed by Joshi that urbanization started with the adoption of monetary exchange, and this was part of an economic phenomenon which transformed the barter-based economy of a vast area. The land that the king gifted to brahmanas as brahmadeya is the uncleared or partially cleared land which part of the royal lands. This is recommended by describing the inhabitants of the grassland which comprise of much wood, grass and insects and that does not give the impression of already cleared agricultural land. A large numbers of brahmana-gahapatis were present in these brahmana-gamas which signify that the preparation of the land was for cultivation through the initiative of the former.