Keats’ Diction in the “Ode to Psyche”

During April and May 1819 Keats composed the odes known as the “Spring Odes”. They were: Ode to Psyche, Ode on Indolence, Ode To A Nightingale, Ode on A Grecian Urn, Ode on Melancholy. Referring to the Ode to Psyche Keats wrote to George and Georgiana Keats (30 April, 1819): “The following poem – the last I have written – is the first and the only one with which I have taken even moderate pains”.¹ Although Psyche is a mythological figure, Keats projects her in this ode as a creation of imagination as well. As he puts it in the letter, “Psyche was not embodied as a goddess before the time of Apulious, the Plato­nist after the Augustan age, and consequently the Goddess was never worshipped or sacrified to with any of the ancient fervour. I am more orthodox that to let a hethen Goddess be so neg­lected”.²

In the Ode to Psyche Keats describes two kinds of worship –­ outward and inner. The outward worship was confined to the specific time of an ancient age in which the people worshipped natural elements – the water, the fire and the air and believed in holy rituals. The inner worship is beyond time and space, and imagination plays an important role in it. Keats offers inner wor­ship to Psyche. Among the Olympians Psyche is fairer than Phoebe or Vesper. Yet she was denied any kind of worship –­ outward or inner. Keats himself assumes the role of a priest to Psyche. The poet is not interested only in the myth of Cupid and Psyche but in Psyche who represents human sufferings’ and woe. Unlike the dramatic mood of the Ode To A Nightingale that shifts from drowsiness to happiness, and death to life, the single thought of Psyche remains the same throughout the Ode. There is little change in the mood in the ode.

STANZA ONE

Keats begins by addressing Psyche as a “Goddess”, and asks to be forgiven for telling her secrets into her own “soft-conched ear”. The compound epithet coined by Keats is powerful in that the adjective “soft” with its tactile value conveys an awareness of the sensuous beauty of the goddess, even as the word “con­ched”, which is generally connected with hardness and roughness, here describes the delicate beautiful shape of her ears. Coming as it does after the expression “tuneless numbers”, used for the poet’s art, the accuracy and delicacy of this compound suggests the contrast between the world of man and the world of gods. Psyche with shell-like ears, belongs now to the realm of the im­mortals, whereas the poet, singing in tuneless numbers, is an earthly creature. This contrast is reinforced by the double paradox in the second line where an action that is enforced is felt to be sweet, and memory, which is so often a source of regret, becomes lovable. Psyche appears to Keats as a “vision” – a vision he perceives with “awaken’d eyes”. The verbal adjective “awaken’d” sug­gests something more than mere bodily wakefulness. Psyche, being a goddess, can be seen only with eyes that are awakened in the sense of being gifted with the power of supernatural vision. The “wakefulness” of eyes is necessary to visualise “the winged Psyche” in the same way as the wakefulness of the soul is neces­sary to perceive Melancholy amidst sorrows and joys of life in the Ode On Melancholy:

“For shade to shade will come drowsily
And drown the wakeful anguish of the soul”.
(St. I, II, 9-10)

Here we recall the experience of dreamy state – an indolent mood – under which Keats perceives the three figures – Love, Ambi­tion, and Poesy – in the Ode On Indolence:

“One mom before me were three figures seen,
with bowed necks, and joined hands, side-faced;”
(St. I, II, 1-2)

Keats had seen Psyche in the “forest”, which is nameless, and in it he “wandered” thoughtlessly. It is the place, as Stuart Ende says, “where one can exist ‘thoughtlessly’, because its exist­ence predates or is of another dimension from that of the thinking principle”.³ We can say that it could be a place where thinking principle doesn’t matter much or an ideal place for one who is free from work, or anxiety. According to Stuart Ende, “If the poet indeed was dreaming, …. then this was merely the romance world that satisfies in a non-intellectual way. But if his eyes have been awakened, then the landscape becomes something more than this, a place of possibility that was lost to literal vision”. ⁴ Cupid and Psyche are seen ‘as “fair creatures”: We may recall the two fair creatures – Adam and Eve – of The Paradise Lost. Keats heightens the dramatic effect by postponing the identification of the pair he had seen till the end of the second stanza.

The two fair creatures are lying side by side in deep grass. We might notice the two verbal adjectives to “Whispering” and “trembled” in these lines:

“In deepest grass, beneath the whispering roof
Of leaves and trembled blossoms, where there ran
A brooklet, scarce espied”.

The first one suggests a continuing activity, the other a completed one. The past participle adjective conveys the sense of completed action, while the present participle conveys the sense of incomplete (continuing) action. Both these types of vel1bal forms used as adjectives endow the description with a dynamic quality. A sense of arrested action is conveyed by the adjective “trembled”. How­ever, this sense finds a fuller expression in the line describing the pair in the second stanza:

“Their lips touch’d not, but had not bade adieu”.

STANZA TWO

The vision of the lovers is continued in this stanza against a ground of flowers in a forest. The opening of the stanza reminds us of the similar condition of the poet himself lying on the grass in the Ode on Indolence:

“Ye cannot raise
My head cool-bedded in the Flowery grass”.
(St. VI, II, 51-52)

The use of various compounds “cool-rooted”, “fragrant-eyed”, and “silver-white” create different imageries: tactile, olfactory, and visual. The setting is described more fully with the words like “blue”, “silver-white”, and “budded Tyrian” – all of them helping the poet to create a colourful picture. The “Auorean love” of Cupid and Psyche has been described vividly through such words as “budded”, “pinions”, “adieu”, and “soft-hnded”. The word “Tyrian”, with its old world associations, tells us about the purple and crimson dye of the buds. The love of the pair blossoms like the early dawn of the day, and the compound “eye-dawn” suggests tenderness, and freshness. The use of “pinions” and “soft handed slumber” shows that Cupid and Psyche belong to realm of imagination. The identification of the pair now becomes clear. Keats recognises “Cupid” immediately as he knows “The winged Boy”. But the more important discovery and identification for Keats is of Psyche. He calls her “happy, happy dove”. Why, he calls her “dove”, we are not told. Ian Jack suggests that “…...perhaps Keats, was chiefly concerned to find a rhyme for “love”.⁵ Through the repetition of the word ‘happy’ Keats shows the differ­ence between the actual world that he described in full through, “The Weariness, the fever, and the fret …….” in the Ode To A Nightingale, and the happiness that Psyche had won. The visionary and the mortal world are separate. Psyche, being a goddess, belongs to the visionary world and achieves happiness that endures. The use of the word “true” at the end of the second stanza implies that Keats has been able to recognise Psyche and her “true” nature that is to love Cupid solely and to welcome him in at her place. It is her “true” nature which helps Psyche to obviate the fear of separation from her lover. The picture of ethereal grace and deli­cacy of her love is created by Keats with the help of words like “silver-white”, “Tyrian”, “Pinions”, and “auorean love”. Such epithets as “Soft”, “cool”, “calm” and “tender”, “happy” and “fragrant” preclude any cloying effect of the love of the pair.

STANZA THREE

In the third stanza Keats addresses Psyche as the “latest-­born”, the compound suggesting the late birth of the goddess. As she is the last born of all the olympian gods and goddesses. She is the “loveliest”. Because of her beauty and tenderness, Psyche outshone the older goddesses, who belonged to the ruling order of the gods. Through the use of compound “sapphire-regioned” star Keats suggests the planet Venus that is shining in the sky. The compound “glow-worm” here is associated with Vesper, the evening star of the sky. Psyche was fairer than those – Phoebe or Venus yet she was not offered any outward worships–no temple, no altar, no shrine was ever built in memory of Psyche. The use of the words “lute” and “pipe” are associated with the festival of dance and song of Idyllic life. Such words as “shrine”, “temple” and “altar” are emblems of a holy place where people could offer sacrifice and worship. The love of Keats for Psyche is combined with piety that is suggested through “virgin-choir” and “delicious moan”, and “incense sweet”. These words help the poet to build up a vivid picture of the rich, colourful, passion – charged spectacle of pagan worship. The succession of negatives – “no voice”, “no lute”, “no pipe”, “no incense sweet”, “no shrine”, “no grove”, “no oracles”, “no heat” – helps Keats to consolidate the impres­sion of unearthy realm to which Psyche properly belongs. We can here presume that Keats wants to establish Psyche above the other goddesses. She was not offered any outward worship and hence she needs an inner worship. In the words of Stuart Ende, “Psyche’s lateness places her in need of a devotee and Keats from the first was attracted to the romance of meek womanhood”.⁶

STANZA FOUR

Psyche is addressed as “brightest” in this stanza, earlier she has been the “latest” and “loveliest” so far. The bygone time has been suggested through “antique vows”, “believing lyre”, “hunted bows” and “happy pieties”. In such an age the elements like the “forest boughs”, the air, the water, and the fire were con­sidered to be “holy” as the people believed in supernatural ele­ments and worshipped them. Psyche appears to be too late for “antique vows”, but she is as Harold Bloom says, “…… in good time for the imaginative vowthat Keats is about to give”.⁷ A sense of regret is suggested by Keats through the phrase–“Too late for the fond believing lyre”.

There is what Stuart Ende calls “a double movement” in the passage beginning from “O brightest……..” from past to present, and from outer to inner”. ⁸ The age of “happy pieties” of past age now shifts to “these days”, the present age of unbelief. Nevertheless the poet could visualise Psyche with her “.........lucent fans / fluttering among the faint olympians”. The use of the word “lucent” is in contrast with “faint”. The former shows the brighter aspect of the goddess Psyche, while the latter implies that the light shown, by Olympians is “faint”. Adjectives like “happy”, “fond”, and “holy” sug­gest approval and liking, and convey the poet’s love and preference for the bygone time of visionary faith and belief. To visualise the goddess and then to sing her song is nothing but an act of inspi­ration. By the time we reach the fourth stanza, the eyes which are “awaken’d” in the first stanza, serve as the source of inspiration for the poet. The ancient outer worship of the gods by the community suggested through “antique vows” and “believ­ing lyre” is contrasted in this stanza with the personal-private-inner worship of the goddess, by the poet. Keats appears to suggest that all the ardour of the ancient worshippers is contrasted in his perso­nal faith as he inspired by his “own eyes”, worships Psyche in the privacy of his imagination. As Keats declares his resolution to become a priest and devotee of Psyche. We see hispreference for secret and inner worship to outward worship. The second half of the fourth stanza practically repeats almost all the words used in the corresponding section of the third stanza. However. in the earlier stanza they were negative elements –“no voice”, “no lute”, which are now become positive – “thy voice”, “thy lute”. The “chain-swung censer” of the previous stanza now becomes “swinged-­censer”. The removal of the word “chain” could be interpreted as the elimination of something that was mechanical and confining. Keats then assumes the role of the prophet of Psyche; he seems to be inspired by her “heat”. The word conveys the spirit of the goddess which takes possession of Keats himself. The goddess’s power animates the poet in such a way that he would now build a temple dedicated to Psyche in the deep region of his mind. The idea of secret worship is worked out in detail in the last stanza.

STANZA FIVE

The inner worship continues in the stanza. The word “yes” is an affirmation of devotion to Psyche, when the poet undertakes to build a temple in memory of Psyche in some “untrodden region” of his mind. Through the phrase “untrodden region” Keats refers to such a secluded part of the mind, where the process of awareness will not intrude. This shows the poet as an inner worshipper who worships the goddess secretly. The new thought that will grow in that region will grow like branches, with “pleasant pain”. The loss of outer objects – “no voice”, “no lute”, “no pipe”, “no shrine”, “no grove”, “no oracle” – create pain but “the mind is made capable of retaining what it seeks, and has sought”,⁹ hence the pleasure is there as the mind is able to regain what is lost. Its place of “pines” the branched thoughts will murmur in the wind, in the secluded place. This place is “far” away from actual boun­daries of the mortal world. It is beyond the reach of human beings and it is surrounded with “dark cluster’d trees” and “wild-­ridged mountains”. The compound “dark-cluster’d” is a sugges­tion of a dark small close group of trees; while “wild-ridged” implies almost a primitive mountain range. The word “zephyrs” is a poeticism that represents west wind that is blowing softly. The “Dryads” is a classical allusion that stands for tree nymphs, and both zephyrs and Dryads have found place in the mental paradise created by Keats within the mind with the help of imagination. The secluded place to Keats is “wide quietness” in which he could build a sanctuary. Through the word “quietness” Keats refers to such a realm where the soul will be able to breathe freely. As Keats worships Psyche secretly, he offers her a secluded place–“wide quietness” where nobody save Psyche will reside. The sanc­tuary is “rosy” – dressed with “buds” and “bells”, and in it there will be “stars without a name”. The adjective “rosy” sug­gests something sweet, snoothing and beautiful. The nameless stars lack concrete identity, or we may not know them. The sanctuary takes shape within the mind with the help of “the wreath’d trellis of a working brain”. By the “working brain” Keats means consciousness that provides the sanctuary “the buds, and bells and stars without a name”. Probably Keats implies by the phrase­– “wreath’d trellis of a working brain” – poetry itself through which he builds a sanctuary within the mind. “Fancy” acts as a garde­ner in the secluded place. “Fancy” as a gardener is better than the real gardener who would grow the flowers of finite variety. The natural gardener has limited sources for breeding the flowers. The word “feign” is a suggestion of an imaginative breeding, which is unique in that it produces flowers of infinite variety. Fancy pro­vides newness as the creative process of fancy never ends and its creations “......... abandon repetition for change”.¹⁰ The “fane” in which Psyche will reside is her private place where she will enjoy

“ ….. all soft delight
That shadowy thought can win”.

The adjective “shadowy” suggests dark shade of thought and provides a contrast with another adjective “bright” which stands for clearer aspects of the mind. “A bright torch” and “open casement” are the two emblems of ardour for Cupid, so that he can come to her temple. We can here recall the “magic case­ments” that open on the “faery lands” of the Ode To A Nightingale.

“The same that oft-times hath
Charm’d magic casements, opening on the foam
Of perilous seas, in faery lands, forlorn”.
(St. VII, II, 68-70)

“open casement” suggests Psyche’s willingness to welcome her lover, for true love can never be lost. It emphasises the openness of the imagination towards the heart’s affections. Keats was more interested in Psyche then her lover Cupid. The Ode To Psyche ends with a note of hope that Cupid will visit the shrine of Psyche with the help of a “bright torch” and an “onencasement”. How­ever, the shrine itself has been built by the poet within the region of his mind.

The Ode To Psyche is the most architectural of the odes, in the sense that the beginning, the middle, and the end are integrated with one another in such a way that the poem as a whole looks like a single poetic experience or vision. No doubt, there is a wide expanse of space and time over which the poet’s mind ranges. From the forest in which Keats visualises the goddess Psyche with her lover – the winged boy – the vision stretches to the world of flowers and trees, the world of brooks and streams. Then it moves into the time of Olympus, in an ancient age of faith and belief. Again the time is changed from the past age of ready faith to the present one of unbelief. There is a succession of movements in the ode but not in the vision itself. The entire poem seems to be one visionary creation. In the ode we find a large number of poetic words – “awaken’d”, “espied”, “slumber”, “piety”, “oracle”, “casement”, “ope” – which serve to elevate the ode away from the earthly realities into a realm of imaginary experience. It im­plies that the poet can recreate the visionary world in his own mind through the medium of poetry. The realm in which Psyche resides and Keats envisions her is an imaginary one – a visionary world. According to H. W. Garrod, Keats has brought the goddess “ …..from her native unrealities into the reality of the imagination”.¹¹ Psyche is his creation and her sufferings and mistakes represent the inevitable condition of human experience. She achieves lasting happiness as she belongs to the realm of imagination”. Her willing­ness to welcome her love shows that true love never dies and whole­heartedness can never be lost. T. S. Eliot considers this Ode enough for Keat’s reputation. “The odes especially perhaps the “Ode To Psyche” – are enough for his reputation”.¹²

REFERENCES

¹ The Letters of John Keats, ed; Hyder Rollins, 1814-1821 (Cambridge, Massachusetts; Harvard University press, 1958), II, p. 105. Hereafter Notes:-

cited as Letters, II. p. 105.

² Letters, II, p. 106.
³ Stuart Ende, Keats and the Sublime (New Haven and London; Yale University Press, 1976), pp. 120-121.
⁴ Keats and the Sublime (1976), p. 121.
⁵ Ian Jack, Keats and the Mirror of Art (Oxford; Clarendon Press, 1967), p. 211.
⁶ tuart Ende, Keats and the Sublime (1976), p. 124.
⁷ Harold Bloom, “The Ode to Psyche”, The Visionary Company: A Reading of English Romantic Poetry (1961), Reprinted in Keats, Ed; W. J. Bate, Twentieth Century views (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1964), p. 93.
⁸ Stuart Ende, Keats and the Sublime (1976), p. 124.
⁹ Stuart Ende, Keats and the Sublime (1976), p. 126.
¹⁰ Keats and the Sublime (1976),. p. 127.
¹¹ H. W. Garrod, Keats (1926), Reprinted in John Keats:        (Odes, ed., G. S. Fraser (London: Macmillan, 1971), p. 64.
¹² T. S. Eliot, The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism (London: Faber & Faber, 1933), p. 100.