Geographical History in the Purāṇs

The geographical data of the Purāṇas is mostly described in their first two ‘Lakṣaṇas ’ which deal with cosmogony, cosmology, and cosmography. They include, among other related matters, the origin of the universe and the earth, the oceans and the continents, mountain systems of the world, regions and their people and astronomical geography. Incidental references to the geography of different lands, particularly those of Bhārata , occur throughout the Purāṇas in the historical accounts contained in them. One has to put all the isolated facts together to get a picture of the lands and their people to which they refer or which they intended to describe. The geography of the world is found in most of the Purāṇas . All of them agree in describing the earth as comprised of seven concentric island continents (Saptadvīpā vasumatī ) [Vāyu , I, 1.80, 6.48, 8.15, 33.4, Viṣṇu I, 4.49, 22.15, Brahmāṇḍa, 37.13, ef. Mahābhāṣya (Keilhorn’s edition), Vol. I, P. 9. The number is sometimes raised to nine (Padma, Svargakhaṇḍa , VII 26) and sometimes to eighteen (Vāyu I. 24.23)] separated by encircling seas which increase by becoming double compared with each preceding one (H.C. Raychaudhuri, Studies in Indian Antiquities, Second Edition, 1958, P. 66), and on divisions of Jambudvīpa , the situation and extent of Jambudvīpa , the situation and extent of Meru and the subdivisions of Bhāratavarṣa (Wilson, Viṣṇu Purāṇa , P. 135, n.1).

The seven dvīpas of the Purāṇas were:

1. Jambu,
2. Plakṣa,
3. Śālmali,
4. Kuśa,
5. Krauñcha,
6. Śaka and
7. Puṣkara

Surrounded by oceans of:

1. salt water (Lavaṇa),
2. sugarcane juice (Ikṣu),
3. wine (Surā),
4. ghee (Sarpi),
5. curd (Dadhi),
6. milk (Kṣira) and
7. water (Jala) respectively

(Agni 108. 1-2, Garuda 54. 4-5; Viṣṇu II, 2. 5-7; Mārkaṇḍeya 56. 5-7. The Matsya 121-22 and Padma-Svargakhṇḍa , IV, mention them in different order).

The names of the dvīpas preferably in the order of Matsya are also given by Alberuni (A.I., I, P. 235 Cf. Ain-in-Akbari, translated by colonel H.S. Jarret, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta, 1891, Vol. III. P. 33 ff.).

Taken literally, the six outer continents may not be identified in the real world. The Matsya Purāṇa wants to make us believe that the identification of the dvipas is a super human task (Matsya , 112, 4-6).

The Purāṇic account of the dvīpas is mixed up with mythology, and it is not easy to sort out the actual from the imaginary” (S.D. Giyani, Agni Purāṇa , A Study, P. 151). But if we accept that the idea of the seven dvīpas was somehow or remotely based on some real knowledge, tentative identifications for some of them may be proposed. As Indian History has been associated with the Śakas from very early times, there is every possibility of truth in the speculation that the dvīpa was named after the Śakas. Thus different regions associated with the Śakas –Sakasthāna (Seistan), (H.C. Roychaudhury, pp. 68-69, cf. ABOR, Vol XXXVI. PP. 358 ff.). Tartary including Turkestan in central Asia (N.L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary, P. 172), Sogdiana (J.A.S.B., 1902, Part I, P. 154), Oxus and Jaxartes Valleys (D.C. Sircar, Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Mediaeval India, P. 163), regions to the east, north and west of the Caspian sea (Purāṇa , III No. 2, PP. 253 ff.) have been identified with the Śākadvīpa .

The Puāṇas mention the river Krumu as flowing in Plakṣadvīpa and it may point to some region immediately to the west of the Indus as being called Plakṣadvīpa (H.C. Raychoudhuri, P.69).

The Viṣṇu Purāṇa refers to the Damin Brahmanas of Kuśadvīpa (Viṣṇu Purāṇa II, 4. 38-39) who have been identified with the Damnai mentioned by Ptolemy (JASB, Part I, P. 151). Kuśadvīpa was situated in north-eastern Africa beyond Mudraya or Egypt (D.C. Sircar, P. 164). The Hamadan inscription of Darius mentions Kuśa as one of the border countries of his empire (S.I., P. 8-9). There are no definite clues for the identification of Śālmali , Krauñca and Puṣkara (Col. Gerine, Researches on Ptolemy’s Geography of Eastern Asia, 1990, P. 275).

Almost all Puranas have enriched themselves by some geographic information. However, in some of the Purāṇas , there is a small number of information and more information is available in the other Purāṇas . Whatever happens, all the Purāṇas play an important role in collecting geographical information of past India. Now let’s see what the geographical information contain in the Purāṇas .

Agni Purāṇa:

Among the 18 Mahapurāṇas the Agni Purāṇa is one of the most important but it does not have the abundance of geographic information. All the geographical information that we get from the Agni Purāṇa are the same as in the Viṣṇu Purāṇa . The early chapters of the Purāṇas describe about the Avatāras . Then following the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata it describes about the Rāma and Kṛṣṇa respectively. Although this Purāṇa follows the Viṣṇu Purāṇa in the field of geographic data analysis, yet the Māhātmyas description of holy place Gayā is a unique subject of this Purāṇa (Ch. 116). There are also descriptions about the ‘Bhuvanakoṣa ’ in the chapter 108, Jambudvīpa in the chapter 118, glory of Kāśi in the chapter 112, glory of Narmada in the chapter 113 and about universe in the chapter 120 etc.

Brahma Purāṇa:

The first sections of this Purāṇa give us the description of the creation, Manvantaras and the history of the Kṛṣṇa’s contemporary dynasties. The main aim of this Purāṇa is to proclaim lord Kṛṣṇa’s worship as lord Jagannāṇṭha. The most notable geographical date of this Purāṇa is the description of the Orissa which was known as the ‘Puruṣottama Kṣetra ’. About one third part of this Purāṇa represent the account of Orissa and its temples dedicated to the Lord Sun, Śiva and Jagannātha. (Chapter 32, 68). Also we get the description about Jambudvīpa (Ch.-10), other six dvīpa (Ch.-11), Bhāratavarṣa (Ch.-15) and many pilgrimages like Ilātīrtha, Garudatīrtha , Svetatīrtha,Indratīrtha and others in the several chapters (Ch.-14, 42–67).

Brahma Vaivarta Purāṇa:

In order to provide geographical information, this Purāṇa has followed the Ágni Purāṇa ’ and the ‘ViṣṇuPurāṇa ’. This Purāṇa is basically divided into 4 categories–the Brahma, the Prakriti, the Gaṇeśa and the Śrīkṛṣṇajanma Khaṇḍas. The most important part of Brahma Vaivarta Purāṇa is that it contains the lengthy descriptions of Vṛndāvana and Gokula (Ch.-72) in the Śrīkṛṣṇajanma Khanda.

Bhaviṣya Purāṇa:

Generally this Purāṇa is renowned for its descriptions of Kali age. Later the many other Purāṇas collected information about the Kali age from this Purāṇa . Like other Purāṇas , this Purāṇa also deals with the descriptions of creation, at its first section (Brahmaparva Ch. 2). There are descriptions about the creation of universe in the Madhyaparva (Ch.-2). In spite of these there are also many information about Bhārata Khanda in the Pratisargaparva (Ch.-20).

Bhāgavata Purāṇa:

Among the 18 Mahāpurāṇas the Bhāgavata Purāṇ is one of the supreme Purāṇa . This Purāṇa is unque in itself. Basically Bhāgavata Purāṇa is more crowned by the Vaiṣṇavas . The fifth Skandha (Part) is more important as the evidence of geographic information and the section is divided into some chapters. From the chapters 1-15 we find the information about the Priyavrata, Agnidhara and Ṛṣabha. Then we get analysis of The Bhuvanakoṣa from the chapter 16. Chapter 17 gives us an important note about the Gangā . The chapter 18 and 19 deal with the Mysteries of the Varṣas in the 5th Skandha . Then we find the description of the Dvīpa in the chapter 20. And lastly there are the information about the Svah and Bhuvah , the Sun, the Planets and Stars, the Pātālas , the Narakas in the Chapter 21 to 26. According to the Padmā Purāṇa originally this Purāṇa is the essence of the remaining Purāṇas .

Garuda Purāṇa:

Though the Garuda Purāṇa has shown enough freedom in its geographical part, but a greater portion of this Purāṇa is occupied with the descriptions of Vratas or religious customs, of holy days, of holy places and of the lord Sun etc. There is an analysis of the theory of the creation (Ch. 4 of Ācārakānda ). There are also the descriptions of the ‘Bhuvanakoṣa ’ in the Ācārkānda (Ch.-37), Bhāratvarṣa (Ch.-38), Plakṣa and Puṣkara and other dvīpas (Ch-39) etc. we get s ‘geographical information from the Ācārakānda about pilgrimage of Gayā (Ch-64-67). The Garuda Purāṇa basically describes about many Ayurvedic medicines.

Kūrma Purāṇa:

Although it is a small one, it has a collection of geographic information. There are many descriptions about Janapadas in this Purāṇa but the information of Janapadas is followed to the Viṣṇu Purāṇa . It also contains a huge description and fuller list of rivers after Vāyu Purāṇa . This Purāṇa analyzes about creation at first in the Pūrvavāga (Ch.–4). Then we get the description of the many Island and mountain (Ch.-44), Hemakūta (Ch.-47), Plakṣa and others dvīpas (Ch.-48), Puṣkaradvīpa (Ch.-49) etc. from the Pūrvavāga . We also find the description of Bhuvankoṣa in the Ch. 39 of this part. Uparivāga of this Purāṇa describes about many glory of pilgrimages like Rudrakoti (Ch.-35), Narmadā and Bhadreśvara (Ch.-39), Naimiṣa and Jāpośvara (Ch.-41) etc.

Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa:

According to Wilson this Purāṇa is in the time of 9th or 10th century A.D. This is the Purāṇa in where there are mentioned abut he celestial birds ‘Mārkaṇḍeya’ who were born on the field of Kurukṣetra and lived in the Vindhya Mountains. As usual like the other Purāṇas there is the description of creation and the earth in this Purāṇa . The Nava khanda of this Purāṇa contains the geographical information and the description of creation which are also in the other major Purāṇas . But the chapter 58, called Kūrma Vibhaga or Kūrma-nivāsa of this Purāṇa has been mentioned about some countries and peoples of Bhārata arranged according to the position of the country conceived as a tortoise (Kūrma ) resting on water and looking eastward. This arrangement has been developed based on previous astronomical works like those of Parāśara and Varāhamihira. Although many of the descriptions of these countries and peoples has been mentioned in the Nava-Khaṇḍa (Ch. 57) section but there are valuable topographical information in the Kūrma Vibhaga and those topographic information are not in the other Purāṇas . The geographical information which we get from this Purāṇa are as follows–(1) creation of Universe (Ch.-45), (2) description of Jambudvīpa and mountains (Ch.-54, 55), (3) about the Ganges (Ch.-5-6), (4) Bhāratavarṣa (Ch.-57), (5) Bhadraśva and other Varṣas (Ch.-59), (6) Kimpuruṣa Varṣa (Ch.-60) etc.

Padma Purāṇa:

Padma Purāṇa is a massive Purāṇa . This Purāṇa is divided into five books or Khaṇḍas. Padma Purāṇa has discussed about creation and the earth respectively in its first two Khaṇḍas , Padma Purāṇa has discussed about creation and the earth respectively in its first two Khaṇḍas , Sṛṣṭi Khaṇḍa and Bhūmi Khaṇḍa . The first sections of the Sṛṣṭi Khaṇḍa elucidate about cosmogony which is the same style and almost the same words as the Viṣṇu Purāṇa . As a geographical information we get from this Purāṇa the virtues of the Puṣkara lake (near Ajmer), a place of pilgrimage. The other side, the Bhūmi Khaṇḍa has also described about the earth and some character of Purāṇas in the Chapter 127. The best part of this chapter is the illustration of the tīrthas or essential places of pilgrimage. The geographical data which we get from the Svarga Khanda of the Purāṇa are–creation of universe (Ch.-1), Islands, rivers, mountains etc. (Ch.-2), Bhāratavarṣa (Ch.-3), about the earth (Ch.-4) etc. Also we find about the glory of many pilgrimages like Kāverī and Narmadā tīrtha (Ch.-8, 9), Kurukṣetra (Ch.-12), Yamunā (Ch.-14, 15), Vārānasī (Ch.-17), Gayā (Ch.-19), Prayāga (Ch.-21) etc.

Vāmana Purāṇa:

Like other Purāṇas Vāmana Purāṇa gives the usual descriptions of creation of the Universe. Beside this the Vāmana Purāṇa also explains the modesty definite regions especially the Kedāreśvara and Badarikāśvrara in the Himālayās and the purity of Sthāṇutīrtha i.e. pools at Thāneśvara and Kurukṣetra between the Yamunā and the Sutlej. This Purāṇa follows the same pattern of the Matsya, Vāyu, Mārkaṇḍeya and Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇas in its geographical portion to analyze the janapadas . This Purāṇa also provided itself with the information of Āndhras and Turuṣkas , which is not found in any other except the Garuda Purāṇa . There is information of about ṇṭhe Puṣkaradvīpa (Ch.-11), Bhuvankoṣa (Ch.-13), glory of many pilgrimages (Ch.-34, 35, 36) etc. in this Purāṇa .

Varāha Purāṇa:

Mainly the Varāha Purāṇa describes about the various types of Vaiṣṇava tīrthas . But the most notable aspects of this Purāṇa is the description of Mathurā . The geographical information which we get from the Purāṇa are as follows–about earth (Ch.-74), about Jambudvīpa (Ch.-75), Amarāvatī (Ch.-76), Meru (Ch.-77), Mountain of the south direction (Ch.-80), about river (Ch.-82), about mountain in the west of Niṣadhācala (Ch.-83) etc.

Vāyu Purāṇa:

Vāyu Purāṇa is one of the incomparable among the 18 mahapurāṇa . It is divided into four Pādas or sections viz. -Prakriyā , Upodghāta , Anuṣānga and Upasaṃhāra . Some parts of the chapters of the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa are the special topics of this Purāṇa which make the Purāṇa unique. There are a few chapters only in the Prakriya portion and treats chiefly of elemental creation. The portion, Upodgātha contains the subject of creation and describes the various Kalpas or periods during which the world has existed. The geographical parts of this Purāṇa are more perfect, clear and elaborate than that found in any other Purāṇas .

It includes:

Chapters 34–35 JambuDvīpa (1–96), (1–47).
Chapter 36 Mountains and lakes, east, south, west and north of Meru (1–33)
Chapter 37 Valleys between mountains, east of Meru (1–30)
Chapter 38 Valleys between mountains, south of Meru (1–36)
Chapter 38 Valleys between mountains, west of Meru (37–80).
Chapter 38 Valleys between mountains, north of Meru (37–80).
Chapter 39 Settlements (dwelling places) in the mountains (1–64).
Chapter 40 Devakuta Mountain (1–26).
Chapter 41 Kailāsa Mountain (1-82); Himavān Mountain; Niṣadha Mountain; Pārijāta Mountain; Jurudhi Mountain (43–89) 
Chapter 42 Rivers from Meru (1–80)
Chapter 43–44 Ketumāla and Bhadrāśva (1–38), (1–24).
Chapter 45 Bhāratavarṣa (1–37)
Chapter 46 Kimpuruṣa and Harivarṣa (1–35)
Chapter 47 Divisions of Bhāratavarṣa (1–80)
Chapter 48 Islands south of Bhāratavarṣa (1-43)
Chapter 49 The Seven Dvīpas (1–153)

Viṣṇu Purāṇa:

Visṇu Purāṇa is the only where the definition of Purāṇa is correctly mentioned. The subjects of this Purāṇa are discussed in five books. The first two books, as usual, deal with the creation and the description of the earth and the astronomical details. Rather the geographical data of this Purāṇa is brief and condensed but the subjects are missing in other Purāṇas . So its originality is there. Book 1 deals with primary creation.

Book 2 deals with secondary creation and includes:

—description of the earth, the seven Dvīpas and the seven oceans (Ch-2)
—description of Bhāratavarṣa (Ch-3).
—description of the Seven Dvīpas , tides etc. (Ch-4)
—astronomical notions (Ch-7-12)

Skanda Purāṇa:

Almost all scholars have denied the originality of Skanda Purāṇa . There is no shortage of geographical information in the Skanda Purāṇa but that information is similar to other Purāṇa like Mārkaṇḍeya , Brahma, Matsya and Vāyu . The Kāśi Khanda of this Purāṇa gives a detailed description of the temples of Śiva in or adjacent to Vārāṇnasī . There is also a story of Agastya which is very famous in South India. Like-wise the Utkala Khanda of this Purāṇa highlights the sanctity of Orissa and Puruṣattama Kṣetra or Jagannātha, and Bhuvaneśvara . The other Khandas like Brahmottara Khanda, Revā Khanda and Himavat Khanda etc. describe the holiness of a temple or temples in their own region.

Liṅga Purāṇa:

Liṅga Purāṇa also analyzes many geographical data like others. The data which rich our knowledge of this Purāṇa are as follows—

Bhuvanakoṣa and Seven Islands and Oceans (Ch-46 of Pūrvavāga ),
Jambudvīpa (Pūrvavāga Ch–47),
Sumeru mountain (Ch–48 of Pūrvavāya),
Jambudvīpa and its river and mountains (Pūrvavāga Ch–49),
Bhuvanvinyasa (Section of earth), (Pūrvavāga Ch–50),
Kailaśa mountain (Pūrvavāga Ch–51),
Different types of Varṣas (Pūrvavāga Ch–52),
Saptadvīpa (Seven islands) (Pūrvavāga Ch–53).