1. The rNying-ma School and the Three Inner Classes of Tantra

The maṇḍala of the hundred peaceful and wrathful deities first attracted attention outside Tibet through popular translations of the bar-do thos-grol. a section of Karma gLing-pa's zhi-khro.^[1] dgongs-pa rang-grol. Little is known, however, of the tantra on which this maṇḍala and its gter-ma cycles are based. The Guhyagarbhatattvaviniścayamahātantra is a principal text of the rNying-ma or "ancient translation school" (snga'-'gyur rnying-ma), the oldest tradition of Tibetan Buddhism which has maintained the teaching-cycles and texts introduced to Tibet during the royal dynastic period through to the epoch of the Indian scholar Smṛtijñānakīrti and prior to that of Lo-chen Rin-chen bZang-po (958-1055).^[2] The rNying-ma-pa are those who have adhered to this "earlier propagation" (snga-dar) and cultivated its traditions over succeeding centuries through study, meditation, composition, and the revelation of concealed texts or treasures (gter-ma). A comprehensive account of the philosophical position and historical background of this school is found in my edited translation of bDud-'Joms Rin-po-che's modern compilation, The Nyingma School Tibetan Buddhism: Its Fundamentals and History.^[3] In contrast, the adherents of the later Buddhist lineages which spread forth in Tibet during the "subsequent propagation" (phvi-dar)—the bKa-gdams-pa, Sa-skya-pa and bKa'-brgyud-pa—are commonly known as gSar-ma-pa, "followers of the a new schools".^[4]

While the designations "rNying-ma" and "gSar-ma" were retrospectively applied, by the eleventh century the two periods of Buddhist expansion in Tibet had become sufficiently distinguishable to prompt Rong-zom Pandita's following observation in the dkon-mchog 'grel, which attributes six superiorities to the ancient translations:^[5]

First, concerning the greatness of the benefactors who introduced them: Since the benefactors of the ancient translation period were the three ancestral rulers, who were the sublime Lords of the Three Families in kingly guise, they were unlike the benefactors of the later translation period.^[6]

Second, concerning the locations in which they were translated and established: Since the ancient translations were accomplished in such emanated temples as bSam-yas and the other doctrinal centres of the past, high and low, they are unlike those translated in the monastic grottoes of today.^[7]

Third, concerning the distinctions of the translators: Those doctrines were translated by emanational translators, the translators of the past such as Vairocana, sKa-ba dPal-brtsegs, lCog-ro klu'i rgyal-mtshan, Zhang Ye-shes sDe, rMa Rin-chen mChog, and gNyags Jñānakumāra. Thus, they are unlike the translations made by the translators of today, who pass the summer in Mang-yul and travel to India and Nepal for a short time during the winter.^[8]

Fourth. concerning the distinctions of the scholars (who supervised the ancient translations): Those doctrines were introduced by buddhas and sublime bodhisattvas abiding on the great levels, (namely) the scholars of the past such as the preceptor Śāntarakṣita, Buddhaguhya. the great master Padmākara and the great paṇḍita Vimalamitra. Thus, they were unlike the scholars of today who wander about in search of gold.^[9]

Fifth, concerning the distinctions of the blossoms (offered) as the basis for commissioning (the translations): In the past the doctrines were requested with offerings of gold weighed out in deerskin pouches, or by the measure. Thus, they were unlike the requests made (by disciples of) the present day with one or two gold bits drawn from under their own arms.^[10]

Sixth, concerning the distinctions of the doctrine itself: The translations of the past were completed at a time when the doctrine of the Buddha reached its zenith in India. Furthermore, there were tantras which did not even exist in India proper, which were retained by bodhisattvas, accomplished masters, awareness-holders and ḍākinīs who had obtained their empowerments. They were taken from pure lands, and from regions of Jambudvīpa such as Singhala and Oḍḍiyāna in the west, through the arrayed miraculous powers of the the great master Padmasambhava, Vimalamitra and others, and then translated (in Tibet). Thus, many (doctrines) which were completely unknown to the scholars and accomplished masters of India arrived to become the meritorious fortune of Tibet.^[11]

Furthermore, concernins the translations themselves: Since the translators of the past were emanations, they established the meanings correctly. For this reason their works are easy to understand and, on plumbins their depths, the blessing is great. But the translators of the later period were unable to render the meanins and made lexical translations following (merely) the arrangement of the Sanskrit texts. Consequently, their forced terminology is hard to understand, and on plumbins the depths the blessing is slight. Therefore, they are dissimilar.^[12]

To understand Rons-zom-pa's final point, one might well make a comparison between the simple versification of the Guhyagarbha and that of the Kālacakratantra. which is considered by many to epitomise the most complex of the later translations.^[13] Further linguistic distinctions between these two translation methodologies will be considered below in the context of the debate surrounding the origins of our tantra-text.

Despite Rons-zom-pa's entrenched position which was designed purposefully to counter the prejudice expressed against the ancient tantras by certain advocates of the new translation system, the rNying-ma tradition for the most part remained aloof from the subsequent sectarian rivalries of Tibetan political life—whether in the conflict between Sa-skya and 'Bri-gung or in the civil war between the Karma-pa-backed gTsang-pa administration and the dGe-lugs-pa hierarchy.^[14] Their philosophy and spirituality have however continued to exert influence on the later traditions until recent times. Important figures such as Karma-pa III Rang-byung rDo-rje (12811-1339), gYung-ston rDo-rje dPal (1284-1365). Dalai Lama V (1617-1682), 'Jam-dbyangs mKhyen-brtse'i dBang-po (1820-1892) and 'Jam-mgon Kong-sprul (1813-1899) have contributed immensely to the development of the rNying-ma teachings despite their affiliation with other schools.^[15] As a study of the chos-'byung genre reveals, Tibet's great thinkers, scholars and meditators from all traditions could freely teach each other without sectarian inhibitions.^[16]

It is in the rNying-ma system that the Buddhist teachings are classified Into a hierarchical gradation of nine vehicles or nine sequences of the vehicle (theg-pa rim-pa dgu). S.G. Karmay in his "Origin and Early Development of the Tibetan Religious Traditions of the Great Perfection" has traced the development of this ninefold classification through a comparative study of the writings of Padmasambhava, sKa-ba dPal-brtsegs, gNubs-chen Sangs-rgyas Ye-shes, kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa and others.^[17] The synthesis outlined in the Anuyoga text spyi-mdo dgongs-pa 'dus-pa and elaborated by the sMin-grol-gling tradition refers to the first three sequences (Śrāvakayāna, Pratyekabuddhayāna and Bodhisattvayāna) under the heading "vehicles which control the cause of suffering" (kun-'byung 'dran-pa'i theg-pa). to the middle three (Kriyātantra, Ubhayatantra and Yogatantra) as "vehicles of the outer tantras of austere awareness" (phyi dka'-thub rig-pa'i rgyud-kyi theg-pa). and to the last three (Mahāyoga, Anuyoga and Atiyoga) as "vehicles of overpowering means" (dbang-bsgyur thabs-kyi theg-pa).^[18] Accordins to Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, the enumeration of nine is itself provisional because the structure may be simplified, e.g. into the twofold classification of Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna, or extended, e.g. by addins the mundane Manusyayāna or Devayāna. Indeed, in this overview of the Buddhist path there may be as many vehicles as there are thoughts in the mind, while, from the resultant or absolute standpoint, there is said to be no vehicle at all.^[19]

The following verses from the Laṅkāvatārasūtra (T. 107) are quoted in support of this position:^[20]

As lons as there are perceptions.
The culmination of the vehicles will never be reached.
When the mind becomes transformed
There is neither vehicle nor mover.

The integrated structure of the nine vehicles is also referred to in basic texts, such as the principle sems-sde tantra of the Great Perfection (rdzogs-pa chen-po) system, the All-Accomplishing King (kun-byed rgyal-po'i rgyud. T. 828):^[21]

Existentially there is only one.
But empirically there are nine vehicles.

The distinctions between the above mentioned nine sequences of the vehicle are discussed in the many philosophical treatises of the rNying-ma school which focus on spiritual and philosophical systems (siddhānta or grub-mtha'). e.g. kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa, grub-mtha' mdzod. Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, gsang-bdag zhal-lung, and bDud-'joms Rin-po-che, bstan-pa'i rnam-gzhag.^[22] The most fundamental distinction is made between the first three or Būtra-based vehicles which advocate a causal approach to enlightenment (byang-chub) or buddha-hood (sangs-rgyas-nyid) and the last six or tantra-based vehicles which maintain the resultant view that buddha-hood is primordially or atemporally (ye-nas) attained, and realised as such by the removal of the obscurations covering enlightened mind (byang-chub sems).

The term "tantra" (rgyud) refers to three continue of meaning and four classes of texts forming the literary expression of that meaning. The former are the continuum of the ground (gzhi'i rgyud). of the path (lam-gyi rgyud) and of the result ('bras-bu'i rgyud). which respectively indicate the abiding nature of reality (gnas-lugs), the means of realising it (thabs), and the culminating buddha-body (sku) and pristine cognition (ye-shes) resulting from that realisation. It is this structure of ground, path and result around which the tantra-texts, both rNying-ma and gSar-ma are developed, as we will see below with reference to the Guhyagarbhatattvaviniścayamahātantra.^[23] The four classes are the texts of Kriyātantra, Ubhayatantra (or Caryātantra), Yogatantra and Anuttarayogatantra, which are differentiated and discussed at length in the above treatises.^[24] The last of them, according to the rNying-ma school, comprises the texts of Mahāyoga, Anuyoga and Atiyoga, the "vehicles of overpowering means" or three classes of Inner tantras (nang-rgyud sde-gsum)—which form the principal subject matter of the rNying-ma-pa commentarial tradition. It is important that the distinctions between these three are comprehended because. as we shall see, the Guhyagarbhatattvaviniścayamahātantra has been interpreted from both Mahāyoga and Atiyoga perspectives.

When the three classes of inner tantras are contrasted. Mahāyoga is said to emphasise the ground of the Vajrayāna or resultant mode of Buddhist experience, i.e. the abiding nature of reality (gnas-lugs),^[25] Anuyoga the path or skillful means of realisation and Atiyoga the result Itself. the presence of buddha-body (sku) and pristine cognition (ye-shes). Alternatively, Mahāyoga focuses on the creation stage (bskyed-rim) of contemplation, Anuyoga on the perfection stage (rdzogs-rim). and Atiyoga on the Great Perfection (rdzogs-chen).

In the words of Me-nyags Khyung-grags, an eleventh-century holder of the rNying-ma lineage:^[26]

Though the three aspects of creation and perfection^[27] are present in them all, Mahāyoga emphatically teaches the creation stage, Anuyoga emphatically teaches the perfection stage, and the Great Perfection is effortless in both.

kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa, in his Mind at Rest (sems-nyid ngal-gso), adds:^[28]

Mahāyoga emphasises vital energy and the skillful means of the creation stage.
Anuyoga emphasises the seed and discriminative awareness of the perfection stage.
Atiyoga emphasises the pristine cognition in which everything is without duality.

And according to sKyo-ston Śāk-ye of Gong-bu^[29]:

Mahāyoga lays great emphasis on conduct,
Anuyoga lays great emphasis on contemplation.
And Atiyoga lays great emphasis on the view.

As these authors state, Mahāyoga does emphasise the ground in its perspective, the creation stage in its meditative technique and ritual activities in its conduct, Anuyoga emphasises the path, the perfection stage of meditative technique and contemplation, and Atiyoga emphasises the result, the Great Perfection or the view itself. We shall observe however that tantra-texts such as the Guhyagarbhatattvaviniścayamahātantra. despite their classification within Mahāyoga, necessarily contain elements of all three, and It is for this reason that divergent exegetical traditions later developed.^[30]

The dispositions of those who would aspire to the three inner classes of tantra are also indicated in the Tantra of the Great Array (bkod-pa chen-po), which says:^[31]

For one who would transcend the mind
There is the creative phase.
For one who would possess the essence of mind
There is the perfecting phase.
And for those who are supreme and most secret
There is the Great Perfection.

And by kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa in his Great Chariot (shing-rta chen-mo):^[32]

The father tantras of Mahāyoga are the natural expression of the skillful means of appearance. intended on behalf of those requiring training who are mostiy hostile and possessed by many ideas; the mother tantras of Anuyoga are the discriminative awareness of the perfection stage which is the reality of emptiness, intended for the benefit of those who are mostiy desirous and delight In the tranquility of the mind; and the Atiyoga is revealed as the natural expression of their non-duality, intended for the benefit of those who are mostiy deluded and who are energetic.

When these three classes are considered distinctly, each is analysed according to its essence, verbal definition and classification, as in the following account derived from Lo-chen Dharmaśrī's gsang-bdag zhal-lung. which represents the Tibetan bka'-ma tradition.^[33]

Mahāyoga:

The essence of Mahāyoga is that liberation is obtained through union with the indivisible superior truth (lhag-pa'i gnyis-med bden-pa) by relying emphatically on the creation stage of skillful means (thabs-kyi bskyed-rim). The Sanskrit term mahāyoga is defined to mean "great union" of the mind with non-dual truth. The classification Includes the topics of empowerment (dbang-bskur) & entrance ('jug-pa). view (lta-ba). discipline (tshul-khrims), meditation (sgom), conduct (spyod-pa) and result ('bras-bu).

At the outset, four empowerments are conferred,^[34] enabling Mahāyoga to be practised. The vehicle is then entered through three contemplations, namely: great emptiness (stong-ca chen-po) which purifies death, great compassion (snying-rje chen-po) which purifies the intermediate state after death (bar-do) and the seals and attainment of the maṇḍala-clusters (phyag-rgya-dang tshom-bu tshogs-sgrub) which purify the three phases of life by establishing one's true nature to be the maṇḍala of deities.^[35] The view of Mahāyoga holds ultimate truth (don-dam bden-pa) to be spontaneous awareness (rig-pa) without conceptual elaboration, relative truth (kun-rdzob bden-pa) to be the ideas or mental energy of that awareness which manifest as a maṇḍala of buddha-body and pristine cognition, and the superior indivisible truth to be the unity of these two—emptiness and pure appearance. Discipline refers to twenty-eight commitments (dam-tshig) upheld in relation to meditative practice, renunciation and attainment.^[36] Meditation comprises the non-symbolic contemplation of ultimate reality and the symbolic meditations of the creation and perfection stages. In the creation stage, the maṇḍala is gradually visualised through the three contemplations, in which deity and thought are indivisible. In the perfection stage, visualisation concentrates on the energy channels, currents and seminal-points (rtsa-rlung thig-le) in the body—either in the "upper door" of one's own body (rang-lus steng-sgo) or the "lower door" (sexual centre) of one's partner's body (gzhan-lus 'og-sgo).^[37] The conduct of Mahāyoga implies that defilements and conflicting emotions of samsāra, rites of "liberation" (sgrol) and sexual practices (sbyor) can be experienced without attachment because they are retained as skillful means.^[38] The result indicates that the five buddha-bodies (sku-lnga)^[39] are actualised in this life time or in the intermediate state after death.

Anuyoga:

The essence of Anuyoga is that by relying on the perfection stage of discriminative awareness (shes-rab rdzozs-rim), liberation is obtained through the unifying realisation of the expanse of reality (dbyings) and pristine cognition (ye-shes). without duality.^[40] The Sanskrit term anuyoga is defined to mean "subsequent yoga”, i.e., that which links Mahāyoga to Atiyoga or which reveals the path of desire (chags-lam) subsequent on discriminative awareness.^[41]

As to the aforementioned six classificatory topics, Anuyoga has 36 basic and 831 ancillary empowerments which refer to all nine sequences of the vehicle, including the sūtras;^[42] and it is entered through the spontaneously perfect non-duality of the expanse and pristine cognition. The view is that all phenomena are the primordial maṇḍala of Samantabhadrī (ye ji-bzhin-pa'i dkyil-'khor), the uncreated awareness is the pristine cognition or spontaneously present maṇḍala of Samantabhadra (rang-bzhin lhun-grub-kyi dkyil-'khor), and the supreme bliss of their offspring is the fundamental maṇḍala of enlightened mind, without duality of expanse and pristine cognition (byang-chub sems-kyi dkyil-'khor).^[43] Discipline refers to the nine enumerations of commitments described in the sixty-sixth chapter of the mdo dgones-pa' dus-pa (NGB. Vol. 11).^[44] Meditation comprises the path of skillful means (thabs-lam) which utilises the energy channels, currents and seminal points either with reference to one's own body or in union with a partner, and the path of liberation (grol-lam) which comprises the non-conceptual contemplation of reality and symbolic contemplation of the deities. who are said to appear instantly "in the manner of a fish leapins from the water."^[45] In the result, the twenty-five resultant realities ('bras-bu chos nyer-lnga) of the buddha-level are actualised within one lifetime.^[46]

Atiyoga:

The essence of Atiyoga or the Great Perfection (rdzogs-pa chen-po) is that liberation occurs in primordial buddha-hood (ye-nas sangs-rgyas-pa). without renunciation, acceptance, hope or doubt. The Sanskrit term atiyoga is defined to mean "highest union", because it is the culmination of all vehicles and of the creation & perfection stages. As to classification, the empowerment of the expressive power of awareness (rig-pa'i rtsal-dbang) is conferred,^[47] the entrance is without activity, the view is that all things of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa are primordial buddha-hood in the unique seminal point (thig-le nyag-gcig) or buddha-body of reality (chos-sku).^[48] Discipline includes commitments of nothingness, apathy, uniqueness and spontaneous presence.^[49] Meditation comprises the three classes- mental, spatial and esoteric instructional (sems-klong man-ngag-gi sde-gsum)—the last of which includes the celebrated techniques of Cutting Through Resistance (khregs-chod) and All-Surpassing Realisation (thod-rgal).^[50] Conduct is without acceptance and rejection, and the result is that the goal is reached at the present moment on the level of spontaneously perfect Samantabhadra.^[51]

The prime distinction between these three is therefore that Mahāyoga, the basis, cultivates the realisation of primordial buddha-hood in a gradual manner, Anuyoga does so in a spontaneous or perfect manner, and Atiyoga is the Great Perfection underlying both approaches—the goal itself.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

On the life and works of this gter-ston. see 'Jam-mgon Kong-sprul, gter-ston brgya-rtsa'i rnam-thar rin-chen bai-durya'i phreng-mdzes, pp. 124a.3-124b.3, bDud-'joms 'Jigs-bral Ye-shes rDo-rje, gangs-ljongs rgyal-bstan yongs-rdzogs-kyi phyi-mo snga'-'gyur rdo-rje theg-pa'i bstan-pa rin-po-che ji-ltar byung-ba'i tshul dag-cing gsal-bar brjod-pa lha-dbang gYul-las rgyal-ba' i rnga-bo-che'i sgra-dbyangs. Ch. 6, pp. 588-589, and the edited translation of the latter contained in Dudjom Rinpoche, G. Dorje & M. Kapstein, The Nyingma School Tibetan Buddhism; Its Fundamentals and History. Book 2, Pt. 6. The most comprehensive edition of the Tibetan text of zhi-khro dgongs-pa rang-grol appears to be that published in 3 vols.: Delhi: Sherab Lama, 1975-1976. but refer also to RTD. vol. 4, pp. 1-281. The translations of the bar-do thos-grol are of course those by Kazi Dawa-Samdup, in W.Y. Evans-Wentz, ed., The Tibetan Book of the Dead. London/ Oxford/ New York: Oxford University Press, 1927; and by Francesca Freemantle and Chögyam Trungpa, The Tibetan Book of the Dead. Berkeley/ London: Shambhala, 1975. See also Detlef Ingo Lauf, Secret Doctrines of. the Tibetan Books of the Dead. Boulder/ London: Shambhala.

[2]:

On the early kings of Tibet, see E. Haarh, The Yar-lun Dynasty and NSTB, Book 2, Pt. 3. Precise dates for Smṛtijñānakīrtī are unknown. According to bDud-'joms 'Jigs-bral Ye-shes rDo-rde, op. cit., pp. 452-3, he is held to have been either a previous emanation or teacher of Fong-zom-pa Chos-kyi bZang-po, whose floruit was In the eleventh century. As stated In R.A. Stein, Tibetan Civilization, pp. 72-73, he was also a teacher of 'Brom-ston-pa. It appears, therefore, that very little time actually elapsed between Smṛtijñānakīrti and Lo-chen Rin-chen bZang-po.

[3]:

This edited translation, prepared in collaboration with Dr. Matthew Kapstein, contains two texts which were complied by bDud-'joms Rin-po-che from older sources, viz. the aforementioned gangs-ljongs rgyal-bstan yongs-rdzogs-kyi phyi-snga-'gyur rdo-rje theg-pa'i bstan-pa rin-po-che ji-ltar byung-ba'i tshul dag-cing gsal-bar brjod-pa lha-dbang gYul-las rgyal-ba'i rnga-bo-che'i sgra-dbyangs [short title: rnying-ma'i chos-'byung], and the gsang-sngags snga-'gyur rnying-ma-ba 'i bstan-pa'i rnam-gzhag mdo-tsam brjod-pa legs-bshad snang-ba'i dga'-ston [short title: bstan-pa'i rnam-gzhag]. Henceforth the work will be referred to as NSTB. Note, however, that since the final pagination of the English version has not yet been determined, the given page references accord with the original Tibetan texts.

[4]:

Note that this designation "gSar-ma-pa" also applies to the bKa'-gdams-pa school. Here there is no connection with the lam-rim bla-brgyud of the dGe-lugs-pa. in which the dKa'-gdams-pa masters who preceded Tsong-kha-pa are referred to as the ancient ones (rnying-brgyud) when contrasted with his successors, the holders of the dGe-lugs-pa lineage, who are described by the term gsar-brgyud.

[5]:

Rong-zom-pa, dkon-mchog 'grel, as quoted in NSTB. Book 2. Pt. 7. PP. 723-726.

[6]:

The three ancestral rulers are the celebrated three religious kings of the royal dynasty, namely: Srong-btsan sGam-po who is revered as an emanation of Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion; Khri-srong lDe-btsan who is revered as an emanation of Mañjuśrī, the bodhisattva of discriminative awareness; and Khri Ral-pa-can. who in turn is revered as an emanation of Vajrapāṇi. the bodhisattva of power. See NSTB, Book 2, Pt. 3. pp. 151-169.

[7]:

The expression "high and low” (stod-smad) doctrinal centres refers respectively to those in Lhasa (the Jo-khang and Ra-mo-che) and near bSam-yas (the dPal bSam-yas Mi-'gyur Lhun-grub Lha-khang). the former being earlier and at a higher elevation than those around bSam-yas. See NSTB, Book 2, Pt. 7. p. 723.

[8]:

Extant translations prepared by each of these illustrious eighth and ninth century figures in rGya-dkar sgra-'gyur gLing at bSam-yas and elsewhere are preserved in the bKa'-'gyur. bsTan-'gyur and rNying-ma rGyud-'bum. See NSTB, Book 2, Pts. 3-5. passim.

[9]:

The contributions of the last three figures to the transmission of the Guhyagarbha are outlined below, pp. 76-78. For more details, see NSTB, Book 2, Pts. 2-6; and also for information on the role of Śāntarakṣita in Tibet, see NSTB, Book 2, Pt. 3, pp. 154-166.

[10]:

mchan-nas bton-nas: Literally, drawn from the underarm pocket of the Tibetan garment.

[11]:

India, in this context, refers to the Magadha region alone. Refer also to Tāranātha, History of Buddhism in India. p. 332.

[12]:

The charge is commonly made by the rNying-ma-pa that those translations of Vajrayāna texts made during the earlier propagation and unaltered by the ninth century revisions read more lucidly in the Tibetan language than those which conformed to the strict conventions of lexical translation. don-' gyur. or translation of meaning, is here contrasted with sgra-'gyur. or translation of word. See below, pp. 61-62; also 'Jigs-med gLing-pa, rgvud-'bum dris-lan. pp. 285-288.

[13]:

The standard seven-syllable verses of the Guhyagarbha are reproduced below in transliteration. Contrast the twenty-one syllable verses of the Kālacakratantra (T. 362), on which see J. Hopkins, The Kalachakra Tantra, and the Sanskrit edition: Kālacakra-Tantra and Other Texts. Ed. Dr. Raghu Vira and Dp. Lokesh Candra, Pt. 1.

[14]:

The conflict between Sa-skya and 'Bri-gung developed out of a personal quarrel between Qubilai Qan. who exercised authority in Tibet through his association with Sa-skya, and his elder brother Hülegü, who had founded the Ilkhan dynasty in Iran in 1258 and extended his own patronage to the 'Bri-gung-pa by 1267. The military campain which began in 1285 led to the victory of Sa-skya and the sacking of 'Bri-gung in 1290. See T.W.D. Shakabpa, Tibet; A Political History. P. 70, and R.A. Stein. Tibetan Civilization, pp. 78-79. The civil war waged between the dGe-lugs-pa hierarchy, with the military support of Guśrī Qan of the Qośot Mongols, and the Karma-pa with their patrons, the lords of gTsang, led to the enthronment of Dalai Lama V in Lhasa in 1641. See R.A. Stein, op. cit.. pp. 82-83.

[15]:

Karma-pa III Rang-byung rDo-rJe was a major lineage holder of the esoteric instructional class of the Great Perfection (rdzogs-pa chen-po man-ngag-gi sde). See NSTB, Book 2, Pt. 4. PP. 236-238. gYung-ston rDo-rje dPal contributed greatly to the propagation of the bka'-ma lineage, and the Guhyagarbhatantra in particular, as we shall see below. Dalai Lama V is revered as one of the major discoverers of gter-ma, amounting to twenty-five volumes in his gsang-ba rgya-can. mKhyen-brtse and Kong-sprul, with Sa-skya and bKa'-brgyud affiliations respectively, were the architects of the ris-med or non-sectarian movement in nineteenth century Khams. Both were major holders of the rNying-ma lineages. See NSTB, Book 2, Pt. 6, pp. 658-693.

[16]:

There are countless incidents of this free exchange of ideas and instructions, and these were by no means confined to the aforementioned masters or to the ris-med activities in nineteenth century Khams, e.g., the relationship between Sa-skya and the Zur family of 'Ug-pa-lung, Sa-skya Pandita's association with the Yogin 'Dar-phya-ru-ba, or the role of 'Bri-gung Rin-chen Phun-tshogs and Zhva-dmar-pa IV in the bka'-ma lineage, to name but a few. Refer to NSTB, Book 2, Pts. 4-6, passim.

[17]:

S.G. Karmay, "Origin and Early Development of the Tibetan Religious Traditions of the Great Perfection", pp. 254-314.

[18]:

The basic Anuyoga text spyi-mdo dgons-pa 'dus-pa. T. 829, is the subject of many commentaries by Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, 'dus-pa mdo-skor-gyi yig-cha. LCSB. vols. 10-12. NMKMG. vols. 14-16. The sMin-grol-gling monastery, founded by his brother gTer-bdag gLing-pa in 1659, quickly became the most Influential centre for the study and development of rNying-ma philosophical ideas. Its branches covered Western and Eastern Tibet, and the treatises associated with this tradition have become the established authorities of the school. See below, pp. 102-105.

[19]:

Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, gsang-bdag zhal-lung. pp. 17-19.

[20]:

Laṅkāvatārasūtra: Ch. 2. v. 202 a-d; Ch. 10, v. 458 a-d.

[21]:

kun-byed rgyal-po'i rgyud. T. 828. This verse is quoted by several authors, e.g.. Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, op. cit., p. 19: NSTB, Book 1, Pt. 1, p. 23b.

[22]:

kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa, grub-mtha' rin-po-che'i mdzod. Ed. Dodrup Chen Rinpoche. Gangtok, Sikkim, ca. 1969. Lochen Dharmaśrī, rgyud gsang-ba' i snyinz-po' i 'grel-chen gsang-bdag zhal-lung. NMKMG. Vol. 32. bDud-joma 'Jigs-bral Ye-shes rDo-rje, batan-pa' i rnam-gzhag. Kalimpong, 1966. See the edited English version of the latter contained in NSTB, Book 1.

[23]:

See below, pp. 59-61.

[24]:

See kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa, grub-mtha' mdzod. pp. 257ff.; Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, gsang-bdag zhal-lung. pp. 59-83. and NSTB, Book 1, Pt. 4, pp. 152ff.

[25]:

For a definition of this term, see H.V. Guenther, Matrix of Mystery. p. 229, n. 5. It also forms the title of a treatise by kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa on the commitments associated with Atiyoga, the gnas-lugs rin-po-che'i mdzod. The definition of the term vajrayāna as the means of realising the fundamental unchanging buddha-nature is that given, for example. in NSTB. Book 1. Pt. 4, pp. 146a-b. Buddha-nature is described as a vajra in the sense that it is held to be undivided (mi-phyed) and imperishable (mi-shigs).

[26]:

Quoted In Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, gsang-bdag zhal-lung. p. 69.

[27]:

The three aspects of creation and perfection (bskyed-rdzogs-gsum) are the meditative techniques of the creation stage (bskyed-rim. Sanskrit utpattikrama). the perfection stage (rdzogs-rim. Sanskrit sampannakrama). and the Great Perfection (rdzogs-pa chen-po. Sanskrit mahāsandhi). For the distinctions between these techniques, see below, pp. 23-27, and the appended commentary phyogs-bcu mun-sel. Chs. 11-13. See also NSTB, Book 1, Pt. 4, pp. 156a ff.

[28]:

kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa, sems-nyid ngal-zso. Ch. 9. verses AVIII as translated by H.V. Guenther in Kindly Bent to Ease Us, Part One, p. 158.

[29]:

Quoted in Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, gsang-bdag zhal-lung. p. 69.

[30]:

See below, pp. 123-127. Also refer to the structure of the Guhyagarbha's chapters, outlined on pp. 59-61, which clearly indicates that creation stage, perfection stage and Great Perfection are integrated in this tantra.

[31]:

This is a frequently cited quotation, e.g., in Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, gsang-bdag zhal-lung. p. 70; NSTB, Book 1, Pt. 4, p. 220b.

[32]:

Quoted in Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, gsang-bdag zhal-lung. pp. 6970.

[33]:

The source for the entire section which follows is Lo-chen Dharmaśrī, gsang-bdag zhal-lung. pp. 70-83.

[34]:

On the four empowerments, see below, pp. 119-120. Also refer to the appended commentary phyogs-bcu mun-sel. Ch. 9, PP. 313-332 and Ch. 10 for a detailed explanation of their role in the Guhyagarbha.

[35]:

The three phases of life or birth (skye-ba'i rim-gsum) are respectively those from conception in the womb to the moment of birth (mngal-du skye-ba bzung-pa-nas btsas-pa' i bar). from the moment of birth to adult maturity (btsas-nas nar-song-pa'i bar). and from adult maturity to old age (nar-song-nas rgan-po'i bar). See NSTB, Book 1. Pt. 4, p. 159a.

[36]:

These twenty-eight commitments (dam-tshig nyi-shu-rtsa-brgyad) are outlined by Līlāvajra, dam-tshig gsal-bkra. P. 4744. pp. 147-8. They comprise three basic commitments of buddha-body, speech and mind (sku-gsung-thugs-kyi rtsa-ba'i dam-tshig gsum) and twenty-five ancillary ones: five of which are practised (spyad-par bya-ba lnga). namely five kinds of ritual concerning rites of "liberation" and sexual practices; five not to be renounced (spang-par mi-bya-ba lnga). namely the five conflicting emotions; five to be adopted (blang-bar bya-ba lnga). namely the five nectars; five to be known (shes-par bya-ba lnga). namely the components, elements, sense-objects, sacraments of meat, and the propensities in their pure nature; and five to be attained (bsgrub-par bya-ba lnga). namely. body, speech, mind, enlightened attributes and activities.

[37]:

A clear account of the distinctions between these practices is given in the appended commentary phyogs-bcu mun-sel. Ch. 13, pp. 453-463.

[38]:

These practices see described in phyogs-bcu mun-sel. Ch. 11, PP. 386-402. Also see below, pp. 61-62 and note 103. For a biographical account of how the wrathful rites of "liberation" (sgrol) were practically applied, see the life of gNyags Jñānakumāra in NSTB, Book 2, Pt. 5, pp. 281-289.

[39]:

The five buddha-bodies (sku-lnga) are those of reality (chos-sku. Sanskrit dharmakāya), perfect rapture (longs-spyod rdzogs-pa'i sku. Sanskrit sambhogakāya), emanation (sprul-pa'i sku. Sanskrit nirmāṇakāya), awakening (mngon-byang-gi sku, Sanskrit abhisambodhikāya), and indestructible reality (rdo-rje sku, Sanskrit vajrakāva). For the distinctions between these, see NSTB, Book 1, Pt. 2, pp. 41b-66b, especially 60a-63a.

[40]:

dbyings, the expanse of reality, represents the emptiness aspect (stong-cha) of the fundamental buddha-nature, while ye-shes. pristine cognition, represents the apparitional or mental aspect (snang-cha). See note 43 below. Also refer to NSTB, Book 1. Pt. ft, pp. 162b-163a.

[41]:

The integration of the sexual practices (sbyor) or path of desire (chags-lam) with discriminative awareness is a significant part of the perfection stage, according to Anuyoga. kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa, grub-mtha' mdzod. pp. 292-4, discusses the general integration of the four kind of desire ('dod-chazs tshul-bzhi) in the tantras. For Anuyoga in particular refer to NSTB, Book 1, Pt. ft, pp. 162b-166b.

[42]:

For an appraisal of these empowerments, refer to 'Jam-mgon Kong-sprul, shes-bya kun-khyab mdzod. Vol. 2, pp. 748-749, and for a discussion of the application of Anuyoga empowerments to all nine vehicles, including the sūtras, refer to NSTB, Book 2, Pt. 7. PP. 758-764.

[43]:

The emptiness aspect of phenomena, represented by Samantabhadrī, is united with the pure apparitional aspect of intelligence, represented by Samantabhadra, to produce the fundamental enlightened mind or buddha-nature. Refer to NSTB, Book 1, Pt. 4, pp. 162b ff. Also, see the present tantra-text. Ch. 2, and the appended commentary, phyogs-bcu mun-sel. Ch. 2, pp. 97.6 ff., which speak of Samantabhadrī as bya-ba-mo, the objective aspect of phenomena or reality, and Samantabhadra as byed-pa-po. the subjective aspect of Intelligence.

[44]:

mdo dgonzs-pa 'dus-pa. P. 452, Vol. 9, Ch. 66, 190:3:3-192:3:4. These comprise four definitive commitments, twenty-eight common commitments, four superior commitments, twenty-three relating to discipline, twenty concerning attainment, four relating to continuity of the path of conduct, five Māras which are to be renounced, four enemies to be destroyed, and the commitment of the view. See 'Jam-mgon Kong-sprul, shes-bya kun-khyab mdzod. Vol. 2, pp. 182-192. Refer also to NSTB, glossary of enumerations, under their respective entries for an English version.

[45]:

The ability to visualise the deities instantly is associated with the perfection stage. It is contrasted with the gradually constructed visualisations of the creation stage. See NSTB, Book 1, Pt. 4, p. 165a.

[46]:

These twenty-five realities of the buddha-level comprise: the five buddha-bodies (sku-lnga) which have been enumerated above; the five modes of buddha-speech (gsung-lnga). namely, uncreated meaning, intentional symbols, expressive words, speech of indestructible and Indivisible reality, and the speech which has the blessing of awareness; the five kinds of buddha-mind (thugs-lnga). namely the pristine cognition of reality's expanse, the mirrorlike pristine cognition, and those of sameness, discernment and accomplishment; the five enlightened attributes (yon-tan lnga). namely, pure buddha-fields, limitless celestial palaces, pure light-rays, thrones, and rapturous enjoyment; and the five enlightened activities (phrin-las lnga), namely, pacification of suffering and its causes, enrichment of excellent provisions, overpowering those who require training, wrathfully uprooting those who are difficult to train, and spontaneously accomplishing whatever emerges without effort. See also NSTB, Book 1, Pt. 4, p. 162a.

[47]:

On this empowerment and its aspects, through which the Great Perfection is entered, see kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa, grub-mtha'i mdzod. pp. 370-372. For the Indian historical background refer to NSTB, Book 2, Pt. 2, pp. 130-137.

[48]:

The term thig-le (Sanskrit bindu), rendered here as seminal point, in this context refers to the seed or nucleus of enlightened mind. The term also indicates the white and red seminal fluids within the physical body and the subtle seminal points of light which appear internally and before the eyes during the practice of All-Surpassing Realisation (thod-rgal. Sanskrit vyutkrāntaka). See NSTB, glossary.

[49]:

I.e. med-pa, phyal-ba, gcig-pa, and lhun-grub. For a detailed explanation of these commitments according to the Great Perfection, see kLong-chen Rab-'byams-pa, gnas-lugs mdzod. passim: and H.V. Guenther, Matrix of Mystery. p. 238. The terms nothingness and apathy are, of course, unrelated to their usage in mundane doctrines.

[50]:

On these classes and meditative techniques of the Great Perfection, see NSTB, Book 1, Pt. 4, pp. 190a.5-211b; and for their respective lineages, ibid.. Book 2, Pt. 2, pp. 120-143. Pt. 4, pp. 187-277.

[51]:

This refers to the sixteenth buddha-level, otherwise known as ye-shes bla-ma. on which see the appended commentary phyogs-bcu mun-sel. Ch. 12, p. 430. The celebrated commentary by 'Jigs-med gLing-pa on rdzogs-chen meditation, khrid-yig ye-shes bla-ma, is named after this highest of buddha-levels.